LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


EUGENE  ALLEN  SMITH.  PH.  D..  Director. 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA, 

•s 

SECOND    EDITION 


BY 


WILLIAM  BATTLE  PHILLIPS,  PH.  D, 

Consulting  Cneiist  ana"  Metallurgist 


!  MONTGOMERY,  ALA.: 


II 


ROEMER  PRINTING  CO.,  STATE  PRINTERS  AND  BINDERS. 
1898. 


ALABAMA 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


EUGENE  ALLEN  SMITH,  PH.  D,,  Director. 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA 

SECOND    EDITION 


BY 


WILLIAM  BATTLE  PHILLIPS,  PH,  D.f 

Consnltins  demist  and  ffletallnrgist- 


MONTGOMERY,  ALA.: 

ROEMER  PRINTING  CO.,  STATE  PRINTERS  AND  BINDERS. 
1898. 


ftr 


. 


To  His  Excellency, 

JOSEPH  F.  JOHNSTON, 

Governor  of  Alabama  : 

DEAR  SIK  :     I  have  the 

honor  to  transmit    herewith    a    Second    Edition    of    Dr. 
Phillips'  Report  on  Iron  Making  in  Alabama. 
Very  respectfully, 

EUGENE  A.  SMITH, 

State  Geologist. 
University  of  Alabama, 

October  1st,  .1898. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Letter  of  Transmifctal,  1-2.  Introduction  to  First 
Edition,  3-11.  Introduction  to  Second  Edition,  12-15. 

CHAPTER  I.       THE  ORES GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 

Kinds  of  ore  used  ;  no  known  deposits  of  Bessemer 
ore  ;  phosphorus  in  the  ores  used  ;  production  of  the  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  iron  ore  in  the  United  States;  produc- 
tion of  pig  iron  in  the  United  States ;  purchase  of  ore  on 
analyst  s  ;  improvement  of  the  ores  :  production  and  valu 
of  the  ores  in  the  United  States  and  in  Alabama.  Pages 
16-34. 

CHAPTER    II.       THE    HEMATITE    ORES SPECIAL    DISCUSSION. 

Classification  ;  the  soft  red  ore  ;  vertical  section  of  the 
seam  of  soft  red  ore  ;  analysis  of  the  soft  red  ore  ;  the 
hard  red  ore  ,  or  limy  ore  ;  analysis  of  the  limy  ore  ;  the 
brown  ore,  or  limonite ;  occurrence  and  mining  of  the 
brown  ore  :  analysis  of  the  brown  ore  ;  valuation  of  the 
brown  ore  ;  mill  cinder  ;  blue  billy,  or  purple  ore.  Pages 
35-61. 

CHAPTER  III.        THE  FLUXES. 

Limestone  ;  analysis  of  tbe  limestone  ;  limestone  being 
replaced  by  dolomite  ^analysis  of  dolomite  ;  use  of  dolo- 
mite in  the  furnace.  , -Pages  62-75. 


VI 

CHAPTER    IV.       FUEL. 

Classification  ;  chemical  composition  ;  physical  struc- 
ture; composition  of  ash;  comparison  with  other  cokes  of 
the  country ;  statistics  of  coke  ovens  built  and  building ; 
coking  in  a  bee-hive  oven ;  analysis  of  gas  from  a  bee- 
hive oven  ;  changes  undergone  by  coal  in  coking;  yield 
of  coke  in  a  bee-hive  oven;  Alabama  coal  in  Otto-Hoffman 
by-product  ovens  ;  the  Semet-Solvay  by-product  oven  ; 
bee-hive  and  by-product  coke.  Pages  76-138. 

CHAPTER  V.       COKE  FURNACES. 

Coke  furnace  practice  on  different  burdens  ;  burdens 
of  soft  and  hard  red  ore;  burdens  of  soft,  hard  and  brown 
ore  ;  comparisons  of  the  various  results  ;  consumption  of 
raw  materials  ;  consumption  of  coke  ;  cost  of  the  raw 
materials  per  ton  of  iron;  various  data  in  regard  to  blast 
furnace  practice  with  coke  and  charcoal.  Pages  139-165. 

CHAPTER  VI.       PIG  IRON. 


Ordinary  grades  made  ;  some  Bessemer  pig  iron  has 
been  made  but  the  supply  of  Bessemer  ore  is  limited 
and  the  composition  variable  ;  grades  recognized  ;  nor- 
mal composition  of  the  different  grades  ;  new  system  of 
grading  suggested.  Pages  166-186. 


CHAPTER  VII.        COST  OF  PRODUCING  PIG  IRON  IN  ALABAMA. 

9  . 

* 

Returns  from  the  United  States  Labor  Bureau  ;  inde- 
pdhcLdnt  returns  ;  ddfc&ils  of  cost ;  comparisons  for  three 
rears.  Pages 


VII 

CHAPTER  VIII.      COAL  AND  COAL  WASHING. 

Area  of  coal-fields  ;  coal  production  by  counties  ;  avert* 
age  price  of  coal  at  mines;  statistics  of  labor  employed 
and  working  time  ;  bituminous  coal  product  of  the  United 
States;  various  data  in  regard  to  the  coal  mines  of  the 
State  ;  coal  washing  ;  list  of  coal  washing  plants ;  results 
of  washing  coal ;  Jeremiah  Head  on  the  Birmingham 
district ;  calorific  power  of  coals;  Landredth's  results  : 
independent  results ;  comparison  with  other  coals . 
Pages  200-246. 

CHAPTER  IX.      CONCENTRATION  OF  LOW  GRADE  ORBS. 

Magnetization  and  concentration ;  use  of  Hoffman 
concentrator;  use  of  the  Payne  concentrator;  use  of  the 
Wetherill  concentrator  on  non-magnetic  ore  ;  excellence 
of  results  reached  on  low  grade  soft  and  limy  ore  ,  need 
of  some  system  of  using  the  large  deposits  of  low  grade 
ore  ;  observations  on  the  situation  in  Alabama.  Pages 
247-289. 


CHAPTER  X.       BASIC  STEBJL  AND  BASIC  IRON, 


The  first  production  of  basic  steel  in  the  State  ;  early 
experiments  of  the  Henderson  Steel  and  Manufacturing 
Company  at  North  Birmingham  ;  results  of  the  work  in 
1888  ;  chemical  and  physical  qualities  of  the  first  basic 
steel  made  ;  furnace  charges;  steel  at  Fort  Payne  ;  steel 
made  by  the  Birmingham  Rolling  Mill  Company ;  com- 
parison of  the  Birmingham  steel  with  similar  steels  of 
northern  make.  Pages  290-344. 


VIII 


CHAPTER  XI. 

Coke  furnaces  in  Alabama  ;  periods  of  greatest  activity 
in  construction  ;  production  of  coke  iron  ;  charcoal  fur- 
naces jn  Alabama ;  periods  of  greatest  activity  in  con* 
struction  ;  production  of  charcoal  iron  ;  statistics  of  hot 
blast  stoves  ;  rolling  mills,  steel  works,  pipe  works,  car 
works;  statistics  of  production  of  pig  iron,  coal  and  coke  ; 
freight  tariffs  on  pig  iron,  etc.  Pages  345-371. 


LETTER  OF   TRANSMITTAL. 

(First   Edition.) 
Dr.  Eugene  A.    Smith. 

Director,  Ala.  Geol.  Survey, 

University,   Ala. 

SIR — I  beg  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  on  Iron  Mak- 
ing in  Alabama,  prepared  for  the  Geological  Survey. 

No  systematic  attempt  has  yet  been  made  to  bring  this 
industry  to  the  attention  of  the  general  public.  Numer- 
ous article,  have  appeared  in  the  technical  papers  in 
this  and  other  countries  during  the  last  ten  years,  deal- 
ing with  special  phases  of  the  subject,  and  many  of  them 
•possess  great  merit.  In  particular  may  be  mentioned 
the  following  : 

The  Iron  Ores  and  Coals  of  Alabama,  Georgia,  and 
Tennessee.  Jno.  B.  Porter,  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min. 
Engrs.,  vol.  xv,  1886-87,  pp.  170-208. 

Comparison  of  some  Southern  Cokes  and  Iron  Ores. 
A.  S.  McCreath  and  E.  V.  D'Invilliers.  Trans.  Amer. 
Inst.  Min.  Engrs.,  vol.  xv,  1886-87,  pp.  734-756. 

General  Description  of  the  Ores  used  in  the  Chatta- 
nooga District.  H.  S.  Fleming.  Trans.  Amer.  In<4. 
Min.  Engrs.,  vol.  xv,  1886-1887,  pp.  757-761. 

The  Pratt  Mines  of  the  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  and  Rail- 
way Co.  Erskine  Ramsay.  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min. 
Engrs.,  vol.  xix,  1890-91,  pp.  296-313. 

Notes  on  the  Magnetization  and  Concentration  of  Iron 
Ore.  Wm.  B.  Phillips,  Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Engrs., 
vol.  xxv,  1895-1896. 

A  series  of  articles  by  E.  C.  Pechin,  in  the  Iron  Trade 
Review  in  1888,  and  by  the  same  author  in  the  Engineer- 


Z  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

ing  &  Mining  Journal,  vol.  Iviii,  1894.  The  Proceeding  of 
the  Alabama  Industrial  and  Scientific  Society,  1891-1897, 
contain  many  valuable  papers,  as  also  the  files  of  the  Engi- 
neering <fe  Mining  Journal,  the  Iron  Age,  the  Iron1  Trade 
Review,  the  Tradesman,  Dixie,  and  the  American 
Manufacturer  <fe  Iron  World. 

But  the  very  fact  of  their  appearing  in  technical  pub- 
lications has  caused  the  general  reader  to  neglect  them, 
not  on  account  of  indifference,  but  because  they  were  not 
readily  accessible.  The  files  of  the  great  industrial  jour- 
nals, and  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Mining  Engineers  are  not  available  to  many  who  wish  to 
know  what  has  been  already  done  in  Alabama,  and  what 
the  future  may  confidently  be  expected  to  unfold. 

After  careful  consideration,  it  was  decided  to  prepare 
a  little  book  of  150-200  pages  which  should  present  the 
matter  as  it  is  to-day  and  chiefly  from  the  standpoint  of 
raw  materials.  Very  little  has  been  said  as  to  furnace 
practice,  because  it  was  not  in  mind  to  prepare  a  Text- 
book of  Iron  Making.  The  book  is  intended  for  general 
distribution  by  the  Geological  Survey,  and  while  the 
main  purpose  is  to  supply  the  average  reader  with  easily 
digestible  information,  it  is  hoped  that  those  who  are 
actively  engaged  in  the  business  may  find  in  it  some 
suggestions  not  altogether  unworthy  of  their  attention. 
Very  truly  yours, 

WM.  B.  PHILLIPS. 

Birmingham,  Ala.,  May  1896. 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  INTRODUCTION. 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA. 

BY 

WILLIAM    B.  PHILLIPS. 

INTRODUCTION  TO  FIRST   EDITION. 

During  the  last  twenty-five  years  so  great  an  improve- 
ment in  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron  and  its  utilization 
in  more  or  less  finished  products  has  taken  place  in  Ala- 
bama that  it  is  now  thought  expedient  to  describe,  as 
briefly  as  possible,  the  conditions  that  have  compassed 
the  industry  and  that  are  still  in  force. 

In  1872,  Alabama  produced  11,171  tons  of  pig  iron.; 
in  1892,  915,296  tons.  In  1880,  the  state  produced  60,- 
781  tons  of  coke,  and  in  1892, 1,501,571  tons.  In  the  cen- 
sus year  of  1870  the  amount  of  capital  invested  in  the 
iron  business,  including  mining,  was  $605,700,  and  ex- 
cluding mining,  $566,100.  In  that  year  the  total  pro- 
duction of  pig  iron  was  6,250  tons,  valued  at  $21,258, 
and  there  were  used  11,390  tons  of  ore  valued  at  $30,175. 
In  the  census  year  of  1890  the  capital  invested  in  the 
mining  of  iron  ore  alone  was  $5,244,906,  the  amount  of 
ore  mined  and  used  being  1,570,319  tons,  valued  at 
$1,511,611. 

The  Southern  States  generally  sell  their  entire  iron 
product  for  purposes  other  than  steel  making.  The  iron 
goes  to  foundries,  mills,  and  pipe  works.  It  was  not 
until  recently  that  any  considerable  amount  found  its 
way  into  steel  works.  It  is  not  probable  that  more  than 
one-twentieth  of  the  iron  made  in  the  South  goes  to  the 


4  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA.. 

steel  maker.  Alabama  offers  no  exception  to  this  rule. 
It  was  not  until  the  last  few  months  that  any  fairly^ 
large  shipments  of  iron  made  here  were  sent  to  steel 
plants.  The  significance  of  this  statement  will  appear 
when  it  is  remembered  that  the  total  amount  of  iron 
produced  in  the  United  States  in  1895,  not  intended  for 
steel  making,  was  about  3,000,000  tons.  At  the  present 
time  Alabama  is  producing  35  %  of  the  iron  used  in  the 
foundries,  mills,  and  pipe  works  of  the  country.  The 
growth  of  the  industry  has  been  conditioned  chiefly  by 
three  great  factors  : 

First,  the  cheapness  with  which  the  ores  can.be  mined 
and  delivered. 

Second ,  the  proximity  of  the  ore  to  the  flux  and 
fuel. 

Third,  the  tendency  of  pig  iron  consumption  towards 
the  interior. 

The  cheapness  of  an  ore  is  not  always  to  be  measured 
by  its  cost  at  the  furnace.  There  are  also  to  be  consid- 
ered its  quality  in  respect  of  its  content  of  metallic  iron 
and  the  presence  of  ingredients  which  determine  the 
use  to  which  the  pig  iron  made  from  it  can  be  put.  The 
lower  the  percentage  of  iron  in  an  ore  the  cheaper  must 
it  be  mined  and  transported  in  order  that  a  market  for 
the  pig  iron  may  be  secured  and  held.  A  very  rich  ore 
may  allow  of  mining  and  transportation  costs  that  would 
prevent  the  use  of  an  ore  less  rich.  The  same  principle 
applies  to  the  quality  of  the  ore  as  regards  its  freedom 
from  injurious  substances.  If  it  be  free  from  phosphorus 
and  sulphur,  for  instance,  it  may  be  highly  acceptable 
to  the  steel  plants.  If  at  the  same  time  it  be  rich  in 
iron  we  may  have  the  conditions  that  allow  of  maximum 
cost  at  the  furnace.  In  Alabama  we  have  ores  of  mod- 
erate content  of  iron,  and  they  must  therefore  be  mined 
at  a  low  cost.  They  also  contain  too  much  phosphorus- 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  INTRODUCTION.  5 

to  allow  of  the  pig  iron  being  used  for  making  Besse- 
mer steel. 

The  principle  on  which  the  makers  of  pig  iron  in  Ala- 
bama have  had  to  proceed  is  the  utilization  of  local  ores, 
and  the  production  of  suitable  coke  from  native  coal.  It 
all  seems  plain  sailing  to  us  now  that  the  yearly  output 
of  coke  exceeds  one  and  a  half  million  tons,  and  the  yield 
of  pig  iron  is  above  800,000  tons  ;  but  twenty  years  ago 
it  was  by  no  means  certain  that  good  coke  could  be  made 
from  Alabama  coal  on  a  large  scale,  and  the  use  of  Red 
Mountain  ores  was  a  vexed  question.  As  late  as  1883, 
-so-called  representative  analyses  of  Alabama  hema- 
tite were  published  showing  56  %  and  61  %  of  iron  on 
the  one  hand,  while  on  the  other  it  was  said  that  pig 
iron  made  from  Alabama  ore  a-nd  coke  was  so  brittle 
that  it  ought  to  be  kept  under  glass  as  a  curiosity.  Both 
these  statements  were  equally  removed  from  the  truth. 
When  finally  it  became  known  that  with  but  few  excep- 
tions the  Red  Mountain  ores  could  not  be  expected  to 
contain  more  than  47  %  of  iron  as  mined  and  that  the 
fifty-six  and  sixty-one  per  cent,  hematite  ores  could  be 
•exhausted  in  a  single  day,  the  situation  rapidly  im- 
proved. So  far  as  the  ores  were  concerned,  the  prob- 
lem narrowed  down  to  the  single  question  whether  they 
could  be  successfully  used  in  conjunction  with  cokes  of 
domestic  production.  From  that  day  to  the  present  the 
question  has  changed  but  little,  the  main  difference 
being  that  the  price  of  ore  has  steadily  diminished, 
reaching  its  lowest  point  in  1895,  and  that  the  coke  is 
ibetter  and  cheaper.  During  a  part  of  this  year  the  price 
of  soft  red  ore,  analyzing  about  46  per  cent,  of  iron,  was 
.fifty  cents  per  ton,  stock  house  delivery.  It  was  during 
this  year  also  that  the  cost  of  making  pig  iron  in  Ala- 
bama was  at  the  lowest,  less  than  $6  per  ton.  No  more 
striking  illustration  of  the  great  change  that  has  come 


6  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

over  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron  in  Alabama  during  the 
last  years  can  be  adduced  than  to  say  that  the  total  cost 
of  production  is  noyv  less  than  the  cost  of  the  raw  mate- 
rials five  years  ago.  This  has  been  rendered  possible 
not  only  by  reductions  in  the  cost  of  the  raw  materials, 
but  also  and  particularly  by  improvements  in  furnace 
practice  and  a  closer  alliance  between  the  chemist  and 
the  superintendent.  There  is  a  large  iron  company  in 
the  State  which  three  years  ago  had  no  chemist,  and  the 
laboratory  which  had  formerly  been  tenanted  had  been 
allowed  to  take  care  of  itself  for  two  years.  The  com- 
pany has  now  four  chemists  in  its  employ  and  one 
of  the  best  equipped  laboratories  in  the  country.  Three 
years  ago  it  was  content  to  have  some  of  its  materials 
analyzed  perhaps  once  a  month  ;  now  the  number  of 
analyses  per  month  is  close  upon  four  hundred.  Chemi- 
cal inspection  of  the  stock  goes  hand  in  hand  with  in- 
spection of  the  product,  and  there  is  now  not  a  single 
thing  used  or  made  whose  composition  is  not  known.  A. 
great  amount  of  material  is  bought  and  sold  on  analysis, 
and  the  inevitable  tendency  is  towards  the  extension  of 
this  system  to  all  materials.  The  most  progressive  com- 
panies in  the  State  are  now  recognizing  the  value  of 
close  chemical  inspection  of  the  ores,  fluxes,  and  fuels. 
In  this  respect  the  change  that  has  come  over  the  indus- 
try during  the  last  five  years  is  particularly  noticeable 
and  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  hopeful  signs 
of  the  time. 

Another  agreeable  improvement  in  the  business  is  the 
willingness  of  the  iron  masters  to  exchange  information 
and  opinions,  to  visit  competitive  establishments,  and 
cultivate  the  more  social  side  of  trade.  There  need  not 
be  rankling  jealousies  between  those  engaged  in  similar 
enterprises  in  the  same  district.  To  refuse  to  impart 
information  is  to  refuse  to  acquire  it,  and  the  day  has 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;   INTRODUCTION.  7 

long  since  passed  when  in  the  mind  of  any  one  man  is 
to  be  sought  correct  knowledge  on  all  phases  of  the  same 
matter.  Without  such  cordial  interest  in  what  may  be 
for  the  general  good,  this  sketch  of  the  materials  used 
in  making  iron  in  this  State,  however  imperfect  it  may 
be  and  doubtless  is,  could  not  have  been  undertaken  in 
any  hope  of  success.  My  own  acquaintance  with  the 
district  dates  from  1887,  and  since  that  time  I  have  ac- 
cumulated nearly  10,000  analyses  of  every  kind  of  ma- 
terial used  in  making  iron  in  the  State,  coming  partly 
from  my  own  laboratory  and  partly  from  the  records  of 
companies  actively  engaged  in  the  production  of  iron. 
The  deductions  that  will  be  met  with  in  the  body  of  this 
report  are  founded  upon  analyses  that  were  made  in  the 
interest  of  those  prosecuting  the  iron  business,  not  upon 
analyses  of  stray  fragments  or  hand  specimens.  They 
represent  hundreds  of  thousands  of  tons  of  ore,  limestone, 
dolomite,  coal,  and  coke,  the  samples  being  drawn  from 
the  stockhouses  during  a  period  extending  over  many 
years.  In  numerous  instances  samples  of  the  ore  were 
taken  direct  from  the  mines,  foot  by  foot  down  the  seam, 
and  from  mine  and  railroad  cars.  The  constant  effort 
has  been  not  to  include  in  the  pages  of  this  report  any 
conclusions  that  were  not  based  upon  th^  actual  prac- 
tice in  the  State  and  district,  and  the  reader  is  assured 
that  no  pains  have  been  spared  te  accomplish  this 
end. 

To  those  who  have  most  generously  given  the  infor- 
mation desired  of  them,  I  would  express  my  hearty 
thanks.  It  is  a  source  of  great  pleasure  to  me  that  the 
replies  to  requests  of  this  nature  should  have  been  met 
so  fully  and  so  courteously,  and  that  I  trust  that  the  in- 
terest in  what  the  State  has  to  offer  to  the  makers  of 
iron  may  be  deepened  and  broadened  from  this  at- 
tempt to  set  in  order  the  results  already  attained. 


8  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

According  to  Swank  (History  of  Iron  in  all  Ages,  2nd 
Ed.,  p.  293,  et  seq.),  who  quotes  from  Leslie,  the  oldest 
furnace  in  Alabama  was  built  about  1818.  It  was  a 
charcoal  furnace,  and  was  situated  a  few  miles  west  of 
Russellville,  Franklin  County,  doubtless  to  use  the  brown 
ore  of  the  Russellville  belt,  which  is  of  excellent  quality 
and  is  now  used  by  the  coke  furnaces  at  Sheffield.  It 
seems  to  have  been  abandoned  about  1827,  and  from 
that  date  until  1888,  a  period  of  60  years,  this  deposit  of 
ore  remained  undeveloped  and  unused.  Not  long  since 
there  came  to  hand  evidence  of  the  existence  of  this  old 
furnace  in  the  shape  of  a  piece  of  very  impure  iron 
which  was  brought  to  the  writer  from  that  part  of 
Franklin  county  by  a  person  who  supposed  it  was  iron 
ore. 

From  1827  until  1843,  there  is  no  record  of  any  fur- 
nace building  in  the  State,  the  next  one  being  at  Polks- 
ville,  Calhoun  County ;  then  one  at  Shelby,  Shelby 
County,  in  1848;  and  one  at  Round  Mountain  in 
1853. 

Charcoal  iron  has  been  made  at  Shelby  almost  con- 
tinuously since  1848,  and  the  reputation  of  the  iron 
has  not  been  excelled  from  that  day  to  the  present 
time. 

The  furnace  was  built  by  Horace  Ware,  who  after- 
wards added  a  foundry  and  a  mill  for  cotton  ties  and 
bar  iron.  This  furnace  was  burned  in  1858,  but  rebuilt 
at  once.  A  larger  mill  was  built  in  1859,  and  iron 
rolled  April  llth,  1860.  This  mill  was  very  active 
during  the  war  of  the  Confederacy,  and  was  burned  by 
the  Union  troops  under  General  Wilson  in  1865.  It  has 
not  been  rebuilt,  but  a  part  of  the  machinery  was  used 
in  constructing  the  rolling  mill  at  Helena  in  1872.  It 
may  not  be  amiss  at  this  point,  while  briefly  considering 
this  historic  furnace  and  mill  to  quote  a  very  interest- 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  INTRODUCTION,  9 

ung  letter  written  by  Mr.  E.  T.  Witherby,  assistant  sec- 
retary of  the  Shelby  Iron  Company  to  Mr.  Swank  in 
1888.  "  The  first  blast  furnace  erected  here  went  into 
blast  in  1848.  Horace  Ware  was  its  proprietor.  In 
1854,  Mr.  Robert  Thomas  made  iron  in  a  forge  near 
here.  This  iron  was  sent  to  England  and  returned  in 
razors  and  knives.  In  1859  Mr.  Ware  began  the  erec- 
tion of  a  rolling  mill.  It  was  completed  and  started  in 
the  spring  of  1860.  In  1862  Mr.  Ware  sold  his  prop- 
erty to  the  Shelby  County  Iron  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany, which  erected  a  new  furnace,  the  one  which  we 
have  recently  torn  down,  and  on  whose  site  we  are  erect- 
ing a  new  stack.  The  rolling  mill  was  enlarged  in  1863, 
and  was  operated  continuously  until  March  31st,  1865, 
when  it  was  destroyed  by  General  Wilson  of  the  Union 
army.  It  was  in  this  mill,  in  1864,  that  the  plates 
were  rolled  for  the  armor  of  the  iron  clad  ram  Ten- 
nessee. Judge  James  W.  Lapsley,  one  of  the  stockhold- 
ers and  directors  of  the  present  Shelby  Iron  Company, 
was  made  a  prisoner  by  the  Union  forces  in  1863, 
while  in  Kentucky  looking  for  puddlers  for  this  mill. 

"When  I  came  here,  nearly  twenty  years  ago,  we  had 
plates,  merchant  bars,  and  strap  rails  on  hand  made  en- 
tirely of  Shelby  iron  and  rolled  in  this  mill.  Some  of 
the  plates,  known  to  us  now  as  the  "  gun  boat  iron  "  are 
still  in  our  store  house,  but  they  have  been  slowly  dis- 
appearing under  the  demand  of  our  blacksmiths  for  "  an 
extra  good  piece  of  iron  for"  "this  job,' '  or  that  "particu- 
lar place."  Some  of  these  plates  are  8  inches  by  3  in- 
ches, and  othes  11  inches  by  5  inches,  and  of  various 
lengths;  originally,  they  were,  perhaps,  10  feet  long. 
Shelby  pig  iron  was  also  shipped  to  the  Confederate  ar- 
senal and  foundry  at  Selma,  .Alabama,  in  1864,  where 
the  Tennessee  was  constructed  and  fitted  out.  This  iron 
doubtless  went  into  guns  and  other  castings  for  this  ves- 


10  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

sel.  Catesby  ap  Jones  was  superintendent  of  the  ar- 
senal, and  with  his  senior  in  rank,  Franklin  Buchanan, 
both  pupils  of  that  sea-god,  Matthew  Calbraith  Perry > 
wrought  out  the  Tennessee.  They  were  as  full  of  pro- 
gressive ideas  regarding  steam  and  armor  as  their 
master,  and  nothing  but  the  scanty  means  at  their  dis- 
posal prevented  a  much  more  formidable  iron-clad  than 
the  Tennessee  from  being  set  afloat. 

'  'Car-wheel  makers  are  the  exclusive  users  of  our 
iron." 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  connection  with  the  Con- 
federate States  foundry  at  Selma,  that  it  used  coke  made 
from  the  Gholson  seam  mined  at  Thompson's  Lower 
Mine,  on  Pine  Island  branch,  in  Sec.  10,  T.  24,  R.  10  E., 
Bibb  County,  and  elsewhere  in  the  vicinity,  as  we  are 
informed  by  Eugene  A.  Smith  (Ala.  Geol.  Survey  Re- 
port of  Progress  for  1875,  pp.  32  and  33.)  This  was 
about  1863,  and  is  probably  the  first  use  of  Alabama 
coke  for  foundry  purposes. 

"In  1863-64  Capt.  Schultz  of  the  Confederate  army 
made  a  large  quantity  of  coke  from  seams  in  the  Coosa 
coal  field,  getting  it  to  market  by  floating  it  down  the 
river  in  flats  to  the  railroad  bridge  across  the  Coosa 

o 

River,  whence  it  was  carried  by  rail  to  Montgomery  and 
Selma.  The  coke  was  said  to  be  the  finest  ever  made 
in  the  State,  and  to  equal  the  very  best  English  cokes."' 
(Smith  ut  supra,  p.  38.) 

In  1825,  there  was  a  bloomary  near  Montevallo,  Shel- 
by County  ;  several  in  Bibb  County  in  1830-1840  ;  one 
in  Talladega  County  in  1842;  two  in  Calhoun  County 
in  1842.  In  1856  there  were  enumerated  17  forges  and 
bloomaries,  about  one-half  being  in  operation  and  pro- 
ducing 202  tons  of  blooms  and  bar  iron.  The  total 
product  of  charcoal  pig  iron  in  1856  was  1,495  gross 
tons. 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA;  INTRODUCTION.  11 

In  1876  the  Eureka  Coke  Furnace  was  built  at  Ox- 
moor,  Jefferson  County,  by  Col.  J.  W.  Sloss,  one  of  the 
most  active  iron-masters  in  the  State,  and  the  founder 
of  the  coke  iron  industry.  This  was  the  first  furnace 
to  go  in  on  coke,  and  was  followed  in  1880  by  the  Alice 
furnace,  built  at  Birmingham  in  1879-80,  by  H.  F. 
DeBardeleben,  another  noted  name  in  the  history  of 
the  iron  trade  in  Alabama.  Then  followed  the  first 
of  the  Sloss  furnaces  at  Birmingham,  built  by  Col. 
J.  W.  Sloss  in  1881-82.  and  put  in  blast  April  12th, 
1882. 

Space  would  fail  us  to  enumerate  the  names  of  those 
concerned  in  the  early  history  of  the  coke  iron  trade  in 
Alabama,  but  J.  W.  Sloss '(who  died  in  1890),  H.  F. 
DeBardeleben.  T.  T.  Hillman,  and  Geo.  L.  Morris,  who 
are  still  enjoying  the  fruits  of  their  foresight  and  en- 
ergy, will  always  be  first  called  to  mind  by  the  histo- 
rian of  the  days,  not  long  past  as  we  measure  years,  but 
removed  from  us  by  a  continuous  series  of  splendid 
achievements. 

Si  monumentum  quseris,  circumspice. 

WM.  B.  PHILLIPS. 
BIRMINGMAM,  ALA.,  May  1896. 


12         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

The  very  kind  reception  this  little  book  has  met  with 
from  the  public  has  so  nearly  exhausted  the  first  edition 
that  a  second  is  now  thought  necessary.  It  was  the 
first  systematic  attempt  to  set  in  order  the  conditions 
under  which  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron  has  been  pos- 
sible in  Alabama,  and  although  none  realized  its  imper- 
fections more  keenly  than  the  author,  yet.  they  were 
errors  of  judgment  and  not  of  fact.  With  the  exception 
of  the  introduction  of  double  and  in  one  case  treble  the 
usual  number  of  tuyeres,  the  blastfurnace  practice  has 
not  altered,  materially,  since  the  publication  of  the  first 
edition  in  1896.  The  same  ores  are  being  used,  and  the 
same  coke.  The  use  of  dolomite,  as  flux,  has  steadily 
increased,  so  that  it  has  now  become  the  main  fluxing 
material  in  the  Birmingham  district.  The  cheap  soft 
red  ore  is  becoming  notably  scarcer,  and  there  is  more 
interest  felt  in" deposits  of  brown  ore,  and  in  the  possi- 
bility of  employing  larger  amounts  of  hard,  or  limy 
ore. 

At  least  one  new  brown  ore  deposit  has  been  opened 
in  the  Birmingham  district,  by  the  Sloss  Iron  and  Steel 
Co.,  and  is  of  great  promise.  The  brown  ore  deposits 
near  Russellville,  Franklin  County,  now  supply  the 
Sheffield  furnaces,  and  excellent  results  have  been 
reached  by  Mr.  J.  J.  Gray  in  the  use  of  these  ores.  The 
brown  ore  deposits  near  Anniston  have  been  reopened, 
and  the  Woodstock  furnaces  have  been  making  a  good 
record.  The  Pioneer  Mining  and  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany, with  two  furnaces  at  Thomas,  have  opened  a  new 
soft  ore  mine  on  Red  Mountain,  near  Bessemer,  and 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  INTRODUCTION.  13" 

new  openings  on  Red  Mountain  have  been  made  by 
J.  W.  Worthington  &  Co.  This  latter  company  con- 
tinues to  mine  excellent  dolomite  from  the  Dolcito 
quarry,  six  miles  from  Birmingham.  The  Jefferson' 
Mining  and  Quarrying  Co.,  also  mines  excellent  dolo~ 
mite,  somewhat  nearer  the  city,  and  the  dolomite  at 
North  Birmingham  has  also  been  opened  by  The  Sloss 
Iron  and  Steel  Co.  The  Solvay  Process  Company, 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  is  building  120  Sernet-Solvay  Recovery 
coke  ovens  at  Ensley,  to  be  operated  in  connection  with 
the  blast  furnaces  there,  owned  by  the  Tennessee  Coal, 
Iron  and  Railway  Co.  It  is  thought  that  they  will  be 
in  operation  by  the  close  of  1898.  Messrs.  Stein  <fe. 
Boericke,  of  Philadelphia,  have  built  for  the  Jefferson 
Coal  and  Railway  Co.,  at  Lewisburg,  four  miles  from 
Birmingham,  a  very  complete  coal  washing  plant, 
capacity  40  tons  per  hour.  It  is  designed  to  wash 
slack,  and  as  the  company  owns  337  bee-hive  ovens  it 
will  enter  the  market  for  picked  lump  coal  and  washed 
coke. 

So  far  as  concerns  coke  the  Birmingham  district  is 
now  well  equipped.  The  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  and 
Railway  Co.,  continues  to  use  the  Robinson-Ramsay 
washer  at  Pratt  mines  for  Pratt  Coal,  and  at  Johns  for 
Blue  Creek  Coal.  The  Standard  Coal-  Co..  at  Brook- 
wood,  Tuscaloosa  county,  uses  the  Stein  washer.  The 
Sloss  Iron  and  Steel  Co.,  uses  the  Robinson-Ramsay, 
as  does  also  the  Ivy  Coal  and  Coke  Co.,  at  Horse  Creek, 
Walker  county,  and  the  Howard-Harrison  Iron  Com- 
pany, at  Bessemer. 

The  Campbell  washer  has  been  used  by  Messrs. 
Elliott  &  Carrington,  at  Jasper,  Walker  county. 

All  the  coke  used  in  Alabama  is  from  the  bee-hive 
oven,  but  on  the  completion  of  the  by-product  ovens  at 
Ensley  some  recovery  oven^coke  will  be  used. 


14          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

So  far  as  concerns  the  ore  supply  it  is  not  possible  to 
add  to  what  has  already  been  written.  The  chapters  on 
ore  will,  therefore,  not  be  materially  changed.  I  have 
added,  however,  the  paper  on  the  magnetization  of  Iron 
Ore,  read  at  the  Atlanta  meeting  of  the  American  In- 
stitute of  Mining  Engineers,  October,  1895,  and  an  ab- 
stact  of  a  report  made  to  the  Wetherill  Concentrating 
Company,  52  Wall  Street,  New  York,  on  the  magnetic 
concentration  of  the  non-magnetic  ores  of  the  Birming- 
ham district. 

The  writer  regards  this  latter  process  as  full  of  promise 
for  Alabama,  as  it  appears  to  be  entirely  feasible  to  in- 
crease the  iron  in  the  low  grade  soft  red  ores  from 
38  %  or  40  %  to  53  %  or  f>5  % ,  and  to  make  proportionally 
as  good  a  showing  for  the  low  grade  limy  ores,  and  the 
low  grade  brown  ores. 

No  attempt  at  concentrating  the  red  ores  is  now  being 
made,  but  it  seems  to  be  not  out  of  place  to  detail  what 
was  done.  That  these  ores  will  some  day  come  into  use 
through  some  method  of  concentration  seems  probable. 

The  chapter  on  Fuels  has  been  entirely  recast,  and  a 
large  amount  of  information  gathered  by  the  writer  in 
his  own  laboratory  in  regard  to  the  chemical  and  physi- 
cal quality  of  the  various  cokes  has  been  added. 

A  new  chapter  on  Pig  Iron  has  also  been  added,  and 
many  analyses  of  the  various  grades  have  been  inserted, 
and  anew  chapter  als?  on  Coal  Washing,  additional  in- 
formation as  to  the  coal  industry,  compiled  from  the 
reports  of  Mr.  James  D.  Hillhouse,  State  Mine  Inspector, 
has  also  been  inserted,  including  the  number  of  mines 
operated,  the  number  employees,  &c.,  &c. 

Having  been  consulting  chemist  for  the  Birmingham 
Kolling  Mill  and  Steel  Works  since  the  building  of  their 
first  basic  open  hearth  steel  furnace,  the  opportunity  of 
adding  a  chapter  on  Steel  Making  has  been  presented. 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  INTRODUCTION.  15 

My  sincere  acknowledgments  are  due  to  the  above 
company  for  its  kindness  in  permitting  the  publication 
of  information  not  hitherto  given  to  the  public.  Mr. 
David  Hancock  has  been  associated  with  me  in  the  steel 
laboratory,  and  has  been  of  the  utmost  assistance. 

In  connection  with  the  making  of  steel  there  will  be 
found  a  full  description  of  the  manufacture  of  basic  iron 
in  Alabama,  so  far  as  concerns  its  chemical  aspect, 
which  is  republished  from  The  Mineral  Industry,  Vol.  V, 
through  the  courtesy  of  the  Scientific  Publishing  Co., 
New  York.  There  has  also  been  added  a  chapter  on  the 
cost  of  making  pig  iron  in  the  State. 

This  has  been  done  to  correct  an  impression  that  iron 
is  made  here  for  less  than  $5.00  a  ton.  It  is  no  longer  a 
question  that  the  cheapest  pig  iron  made  in  the  world  is 
made  in  Alabama,  and  it  has  been  thought  that  a  brief 
statement  of  facts  in  regard  to  the  matter  would  not  be 
out  of  place. 

The  exportation  of  218,633  tons   of  iron  to  England, 
Continental  Europe,  Japan  &c,  during   1897,  as  against 
65,000  tons  in  1896  marks  a   new   and  hopeful   develop- 
ment of  outside  markets  for  Alabama  iron. 
WM.  B.  PHILLIPS, 

Birmingham, Ala.,  May  1898. 


16          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA. 

CHAPTER    I. 

THE  ORES  :     GENERAL  DISCUSSION. 


The  ores  used  in  the  production  of  pig  iron  in  Ala- 
bama fall  naturally  into  two  classes,  and  for  convenience 
of  reference  the  local  names  will  be  used  with  full  ex- 
planations under  each.  They  are  either  limonites,  the 
so-called  "  brown  ores,"  or  hematites,  the  so-called  soft, 
and  hard  ores.  There  are  deposits  of  blackband  ores 
and  of  magnetites,  none  of  which,  however,  come  into 
use.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  use  the  more  or  less 
bituminous  blackband  ores,  both  raw  and  calcined,  but 
they  were  not  successful.  Several  years  ago  an  attempt 
was  made  at  one  of  the  coke  furnaces  to  employ  the  raw 
blackband  ore  found  in  association  with  one  of  the  coal 
seams  in  the  northern  part  of  Jefferson  County,  but  the 
furnace  worked  badly,  probably  owing  to  the  very  bitu- 
minous nature  of  the  ore,  and  the  experiment  was  dis- 
continued. The  same  ore  was  afterwards  calcined  in, 
piles  in  the  open  air  and  a  portion  of  the  resulting  ma- 
terial was  of  fair  quality.  But  owing,  it  is  thought,  to 
the  lack  of  care  in  the  management  of  the  business  there 
was  a  gooddeal  of  trouble  from  the  caking  of  the  ore. 
In  places  it  resembled  impure  iron  and  was  almost  malle- 
able. Nothing  has  been  done  in  this  direction  for  some 
time,  as  the  available  supply  of  ores  that  do  not  need 
such  treatment  is  still  very  large.  Practically  all  of  the 
iron  made  in  the  State  has  been  produced  from Jimonite,- 
hematite,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two. 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  THE  ORES.  17 

For  special  purposes,  as  for  instance,  car  wheel  iron 
or  some  particular  kind  of  iron  destined  for  the  pipe 
works,  brown  ores  alone  are  used,  although  at  times 
some  admixture  of  hematite  is  permitted  even  then. 
For  ordinary  foundry  and  mill  irons,  and  of  late  for 
basic  iron,  the  common  practice  is  to  use  a  mixture  of 
brown  and  hematite  ores,  the  proportion  of  brown  ore 
being  for  the  most  part  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  ore  bur- 
den, although  there  are  some  important  exceptions  to 
this  rule. 

It  seems  best  to  take  up  the  ores  under  separate  head- 
ings, that  a  fuller  understanding  of  the  subject  may  be 
reached,  but  before  doing  so  some  observations  on  the 
ores  in  general  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

In  Alabama  a  vast  deal  of  prospecting  has  been  car- 
ried on  for  more  than  twenty  years  to  ascertain  if  ife 
were  possible  to  find'  richer  ores  or  ores  of  cheaper  ac- 
cessibility. During  the  flush  times  several  chemical 
laboratories  were  in  active  operation  in  more  than  one 
town  and  thousands  of  analyses  were  made  of  almost 
every  known  deposit.  In  many  cases  the  samples  were 
taken  by  interested  persons  and  in  many  others  by  per- 
sons wholly  unacquainted  with  the  first  principles  of 
sampling  ore  seams.  In  the  writer's  own  experience  it 
has  happened  many  times  that  a  single  piece  of  ore,  not 
larger  than  the  fist,  would  be  brought  in  as  representing 
the  seam.  In  one  case  of  the  kind  it  happened  that  the 
ore  showed  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  phosphorus t 
with  some  46  per  cent,  of  iron.  Whereupon  the  report 
was  circulated  that  a  large  deposit  of  Bessemer  ore  had 
been  discovered  and  for  a  while  speculators  were  busy. 
If  there  be  any  large  deposit  of  Bessemer  ore  in  the  State 
it  has  not  yet  been  found.  There  are  places  where  some 
of  the  brown  ores  show  phosphorus  below  the  Bessemer 
limit,  but  fifty  feet  away  they  are  liable  to  carry  from 
2 


18          GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

0.20  per  cent,  to  0.50  per  cent,  of  this  element.  The 
same  observation  applies  to  certain  seams  of  fine  grained 
soft  red  hematite.  Many  seams  have  been  carefully 
sampled  and  many  analyses  made  in  the  search  for  ore 
that  would  not  show  phosphorus  above  the  Bessemer 
limit,  i.  e.,  not  over  0.05  per  cent,  for  50  per  cent,  of 
iron.  But  the  conclusion  has  finally  been  reached  that 
for  the  present  we  shall  have  to  confine  ourselves  to  ores 
that  contain  from  0.10  to  0.40  per  cent  of  phosphorus 
per  50  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  in  many  of  the  brown  ores 
we  may  expect  a  considerable  increase  over  these  fig- 
ures. It  will  not  be  denied  that  for  a  small  furnace  and 
with  great  care  in  the  selection  of  the  ore,  the  chemist 
being  constantly  employed  in  analyzing  for  phosphorus, 
it  might  be  possible  to  make  Bessemer  iron  in  this  State 
from  some  of  the  brown  ores,  but  no  one  could  be  ad- 
yised  to  undertake  the  project  with  present  lights.  The 
attempt  has  been  made  and  several  thousand  tons  of  iron 
with  less  than  0.10  per  cent,  of  phosphorus  were  pro- 
duced, but  the  enterprise  languished  and  has  not  been 
revived . 

The  treacherous  nature  of  brown  ore  with  respect  to 
the  continuit  y  of  the  deposit,  is  enough  to  forbid  reason- 
able hope  of  success. 

The  hematite  ores,  on  the  other  hand,  carry  phos- 
phorus much  above  the  Bessemer  limit.  They  carry 
generally  from  0.30  %  to  0.40  %  of  phosphorus,  al- 
though there  is  in -the  district  contiguous  to  Birming- 
ham a  small  seam  of  red  hematite  that  carries  5.41  % 
of  phosphorus  and  another  2'.31  %,  the  metallic  iron 
being  about  38  %  . 

In  the  early* days  of  iron  making  in  the  Birmingham 
district  It  was  the  rule,  according  to  one  of  the  contract- 
ors, "  to  mine  anything  that  was  red,"  and  what  was 
mined  went  into  the  furnace.  The  difference  between 


IRON  MAKING      IN  ALABAMA  :  THE    ORES.  19 

good,  bad,  and  indifferent  may  have  been  known,  but 
was  not  a  factor  with  the  contractor  or  with  the  fur- 
nace manager. 

The.  following  table  page  20  taken  from  the  excellent 
report  of  Mr.  John  Birkinbine  on  "The  Pr:duction  of 
Iron  Ores  in  1897,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Division 
of  Mineral  Resources,"  shows  the  production  and 
valuation  of  iron  ore  by  states  in  1896  and  1897. 

From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  Alabama  ranked 
third  in  the  production  of  iron  ore. 

When  one  considers  that  Alabama  converts  practically 
all  of  her  ore  into  pig  iron  she  is  easily  first  among  the 
states  in  the  local  consumption  of  her  product.  The 
amount  of  iron  made  in  the  state  from  outside  ore  is  in- 
significant. Michigan,  the  largest  producer  of  ore, 
made  in  1897  only  132,578  tons  of  pig  iron,  and  Min- 
nesota, the  second  largest  producer  made  none  at  all. 

Alabama  is  also  third  in  the  production  of  red  hema- 
like  ore,  Michigan  and  Minnesota  being  first  and  second. 
Virginia  is  the  first  in  the  production  of  brown  hema- 
tite, and  Alabama  second,  with  Tennessee  a  close  third. 

No  magnetic  ore  or  Jcarbornate  ore  is  mined  in  the 
State,  although  there  are  considerable  deposits  of  both 
these  varieties. 

It  is  of  special  interest  to  know  that  the  group  of 
mines  on  Red  Mountain  between  Grace's  Gap  and 
Reeder's  Gap,  including  the  Alice,  Fossil,  Muscoda, 
Redding,  and  Ware's  was  the  largest  single  producer  in 
the  United  States  in  1896  with  945,805  tons. 

In  connection  with  this  table  it  would  be  of  interest 
to  give  one  showing  the  pig  iron  produced  in  1896  and 
1897  by  states,  from  the  report  of  Mr.  James  Swank, 
manager  American  Iron  and  Steel  Association,  1897. 


20 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


GQ 


COO1'— ICCCMiOt^tOtO^OSt^-  CO  ^  CO 
Cij  CM  CM  CM  "f  lO  OS  CM  CO  — I  CO  rH  iO  CO  t- 
T  "*l  CO  rH  t^  rH  Tfrl  t^  CM  CO  CO  ^  OS  H/l  »O 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  TIE  ORES.  21 

TABLE  II. 

PRODUCTION  OF  PIG  IRON  IN  1896  and  1897,   BY 

STATES.     TONS  OF  2,240  LBS. 

1896  1897. 

Pennsylvania   .  . 4,024,166 4,631,634 

Ohio.  .  . 1,196.326..  ..1,372,889 

Illinois 925,239..  ..1,117,239 

Alabama 922,170.  .  .  .  947,831 

Virginia 386,277....  307,610 

Tennessee 248,338 272,130 

New  York 206,075  ....  253,304 

Wisconsin 158,484.  .  .  .  103,909 

Michigan 149,511 ....  132,578 

West  Virginia 108,569. .  .  .  132,907 

Maryland! 79,472.  .  .  .  193,702 

Kentucky! 70,660.  .  .  .  35,899 

New  Jersey 59,163 ....  95,696 

•Colorado 45V104. .  . .  6,582 

-Georgia 15,593 17,092 

Missouri 12,548.  .  .  .  23,883 

Connecticut 10,187.  .  .  .  8,336 

North  Carolina 2,151.  .  .  . 

Massachusetts 1,873.:..  3,384 

Texas  .  1,221....  6,175 


Total. 8,623,127. .  .  .9,652,680 

The  largest  production  of  pig  iron  in  any  one  year 
was  in  1897. 

The  principles  underlying  the  valuation  of  iron  ores 
are  but  little  used  in  the  State,  the  old  system  of  pur- 
chasing by  the  ton  still  being  maintained.  The  value 


22  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF~ALABAMA. 

of  an  ore  is  the  price  at  the  mine,  for,  unless  the  miner 
also  pays  the  freight,  he  has  already  added  to  the  cost 
of  mining  all  the  legitimate  costs  that  should  apply  to 
a  ton,  including  royalty.  If  his  contract  require  that 
he  pay  the  freight,  he  cannot  reasonably  add  the  freight 
to  the  value  of  the  ore,  for  this  varies  with  the  distance 
it  has  to  be  transported. 

With  the  exception  of  some  brown  ores,  which  are 
purchased  on  the  unit  basis,  but  which  constitute  a  small 
part  of  the  ore  used,  and  some  special  contracts  relating 
to  hematite,  the  ores  in  Alabama  are  bought  by  the  ton 
without  regard  to  their  composition.  The  price  is  so 
much  per  ton,  whether  they  carry  forty,  or  forty-three, 
or  forty- seven,  or  fifty  per  cent,  of  iron. 

This  system  has  but  little  to  recommend  it,  except  a 
mistaken  notion  of  economy  in  the  saving  of  laboratory 
expenses  and  sampling.  A  close  inspection  may  be  kept 
on  the  ore  as  received  and  daily  reports  made  as  to  its 
composition,  but  unless  there  is  a  penalty  attached  to 
the  shipping  of  poor  ore,  there  is  really  no  way  in  which 
it  can  be  stopped.  The  price  is  uniform,  no  matter 
what  the  ore  may  be.  It  may  be  improperly  mined,  it 
may  contain  unusual  amounts  of  water,  or  clay,  or  chert, 
but  the  price  is  the  same  to  the  furnace.  A  car  load  of 
ore  may  contain  47  %  of  iron  to-day,  to-morrow  the  ore 
from  the  same  mine  may  contain  only  43  %  ,  yet  the 
price  i^  the  same.  A  brown  ore  may  reach  the  furnace 
with  its  customary  7  %  of  water,  to-morrow  it  may  have 
13  % ,  yet  the  ore  is  sold  by  the  ton  and  the  water  is 
counted  as  ore. 

There  are  two  main  results  from  this  system  :  First, 
the  contractor  is  not  impelled  to  furnish  ore  any  better 
than  would  be  accepted.  His  sole  aim  is  to  avoid  disputes 
with  the  furnaceman  by  sending  ore  that  indeed  could  be 
better  but  still  will  pass  muster.  There  may  arise  under 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  THE  ORES.  23 

this  condition  of  affairs  a  tendency  towards  careless 
mining,  and  if  the  line  between  acceptable  ore  and  bad 
ore  be  an  arbitrary  one,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  there 
is  a  temptation  to  "  put  the  shot  down"  a  little  bit 
deeper  than  the  line  of  separation.  In  the  mining  of  the 
soft  red  ores  by  open  cut,  the  over-burden  having  been 
removed,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  distinguish  be- 
tween ore  of  46  %  iron  and  ore  of  40  %  simply  by  the 
eye.  The  chemist  alone  can  decide  the  question.  It  is 
a  fortunate  circumstance,  in  the  Birmingham  district, 
that  for  the  most  part  the  contractors  are  fully  alive  to 
the  advantages  of  shipping  ore  that  will  cause  no  dis- 
pute. Under  the  present  system-  it  is  difficult  to  see 
how  they  could  ship  better  ore  than  they  do.  But  the 
system  itself  is  wrong  in  principle.  The  administration 
of  it  may  be  as  fair  to  the  contractor  as  to  the  furnace, 
but  this  does  not  do  away  with  the  main  objection  to  it, 
which  is,  that  the  same  price  is  paid  for  ore  that  is 
barely  usable  as  for  ore  that  is  really  good.  It  cannot 
be  denied  that  this  objection  is  valid  and  that  until  it 
is  removed  the  true  principle  underlying  the  valuation 
of  ores  can  not  be  put  into  practice. 

The  second  result  from  the  system  of  purchasing  ore 
by  the  ton  and  not  on  analysis  is  that  the  furnaceman 
cannot  know  that  his  ore  to-day  is  of  the  same  com- 
position as  it  was  yesterday  and  will  be  to-morrow. 
The  purchase  of  ore  on  analysis  does  not  necessarily 
condition  regularity  of  stock,  but  it  is  a  long  step  to- 
wards this  most  desirable  end.  It  is  more  than  prob- 
able that  under  it  there  would  be  a  tendency  towards  the 
higher  grades  of  ore,  for  these  would  be  more  profitable 
to  the  contractor  than  the  lower  grades. 

The  irregularity  in  the  stock  is  one  of  the  most  serious 
obstacles  with  which  the  Alabama  iron  master  has  to 
contend,  especially  when  he  is  using  Red  Mountain  ores. 


24  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

The  most  untiring  vigilance  is  demanded  in  order  that 
the  entire  make  of  the  furnace  shall  not  be  injuriously 
affected.  It  is  of  course  the  fact  that  a  great  dbal  of  ex- 
cellent iron  has  been  made  in  the  State  without  calling 
into  constant  requisition  the  services  of  a  chemist.  Bat 
this  is  no  more  than  saying  that  many  a  case  of  illness 
has  been  cured  without  the  care  of  a  regular  physician. 
We  venture  the  assertion  that  even  under  the  present 
insufficient;  system  a  lower  cost,  account  for  the  making 
of  iron  would  be  shown  by  the  companies  employing 
chemists  than  by  the  others.  By  far  the  greater  amount 
of  iron  now  made  in  Alabama  is  the  product  of  com- 
panies with  well  equipped  laboratories,  and  some  of  the 
most  important  sales  of  iron  ever  consummated  in  the 
State  were,  to  a  great  degree,  brought  about  by  the  fact 
that  the  laboratory  could  be  depended  upon  not  only  for 
the  inspection  of  the  product,  but  also  and  particularly 
for  ihe  inspection  of  the  stock. 

Uniformly  good  iron  can  not  be  made  at  a  uniformly 
low  cost  with  irregular  stock,  and  variations  in  the  cost 
of  the  iron  are  to  a  considerable  extent  due  to  variations 
in  the  composition  of  the  raw  materials.  Pay  close  at- 
tention to  what  goes  into  the  furnace  and  capping  hole 
will  take  care  of  itself.  It  is  a  poor  policy  to  fill  the 
furnace  with  almost  anything  that  may  be  to  hand  and 
trust  Providence  to  look  after  the  cast-house. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  nature  of  the  ores  used  that 
forbids  their  sale  on  analysis,  and  as  this  system  is  al- 
ready applied  to  nearly  all  the  flux  used,  and  to  a  not 
inconsiderable  quantity  of  coke  and  ore,  the  extension 
of  it  would  not  appear  to  offer  insurmountable  diffi- 
culties. The  greater  part  of  the  cost  of  making  iron  is 
borne  by  raw  materials.  The  quality  of  these  materials, 
therefore,  and  their  regularity  of  composition  are  of 
vital  importance.  As  respects  composition,  there  is  a 


25 

point  beyond  which  it  is  not  possible  to  make  iron  profit- 
ably, no  matter  what  the  price  of  the  materials  may  be. 
How" low  this  point  may  be  will  depend,  ceteris  paribus, 
upon  the  difference  between  the  cost  of  the  iron  and  its 
selling  price.  When  this  difference  is  considerable,  as 
was  the  case  in  this  State  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago,  iron 
may  be  made  at  a  profit  from  very  inferior  materials. 
But  when  the  margin  of  profit  is  narrow,  as  has  been 
the  case  of  late  years,  the  use  of  inferior  materials  be- 
comes impossible.  With  increasing  competition  and  a 
narrowing  selvage  of  profits,  the  necessity  for  using 
better  and  better  ore  becomes  more  and  more  pressing. 
To  keep  the  furnaces  in  blast  and  avert  disaster  from 
the  district,  it  may  happen  that  the  price  of  ore  will  fall 
below  the  figures  at  which  it  can  be  mined  profitably, 
unless  the  operations  be  conducted  on  a  very  large  scale 
and  long  time  contracts  can  be  made,  assuring  a  steady 
output  for  a  number  of  years.  Under  such  conditions  some 
concessions  may  be  made  by  the  furnacemen  in  respect 
to  quality,  but  at  the  same  time  they  would  be  warrant- 
ed in  holding  out  for  uniformity  of  composition.  One 
•would  be  inclined  to  consider  the  uniformity  of  compo- 
sition as  more  important  than  the  quality,  provided  al- 
ways that  this  would  not  entail  too  much  handling  of 
stock  per  ton  of  iron  made.  When  ore  is  sold  for  stock- 
house  delivery  at  a  fraction  over  a  cent  per  unit  of  iron, 
it  would  seem  that  no  further  reduction  in  price  could  be 
expected. 

Under  all  circumstances,  except  such  as  embody  the 
sale  of  the  ore  at  so  much  per  unit  of  iron,  there  will  be 
•complaint  by  the  furnaceman  that  the  ore  is  not  as  good 
as  it  might  be,  and  it  will  be  met  by  the  miner  with  the 
assertion  that  it  is  as  good  as  it  can  be  at  the  price  paid 
for  it.  This  may,  indeed,  be  true,  but  at  the  same  time 
at  is  not  to  be  hastily  concluded  that  for  more  money  the 


26  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

miner  is  willing  to  guarantee  better  ore.  For  the  most 
part  his  endeavor  is  to  get  the  largest  possible  returns 
from  the  smallest  possible  outlay,  a  resolution  in  the 
highest  degree  laudable  but  apt,  at  times,  to  cause  more 
or  less  friction  as  to  shipments.  To  him  a  ton  of  ore  is 
a  ton  of  ore.  It  weighs  2,240  pounds,  and  whether  it 
contains  fifty  per  cent,  of  iron  or  forty- five  he  receives 
the  same  pay.  But  to  the  furnaceman,  who  has  to  con- 
sider the  amount  of  iron  he  can  get  from  that  ton  and 
the  ease  with  which  he  can  do  it,  the  question  is  of  an- 
other kind. 

There  is  a  side  of  the  matter  not  yet  touched  uponr 
but  which  can  not  be  neglected.  If  the  higher  grade 
ore  only  be  mined,  the  exhaustion  of  the  deposit  is  cer- 
tainly set  forward.  It  rarely  happens  that  all  of  a  deposit 
is  high  grade  ore.  and  if  only  the  best  be  in  demand  one 
has  to  cut  his  cloth  to  suit  the  pattern.  The  miner  may 
have  incurred  large  expense  in  opening  the  mine  and  in 
equipping  it  with  proper  machinery  under  the  expecta- 
tion that  his  output  would  be  profitable  to  him.  If  he 
be  restricted  to  a  certain  portion  of  the  ore  and  this  be 
below  the  amount  required  to  yield  a  profit  on  the  in- 
vestment, he  would  be  subjected  to  hardships  not  toler- 
able under  ordinary  conditions.  He  is  quite  willing 
to  encourage  the  belief  that  it  is  cheaper  to  use  a  large 
amount  of  low  priced,  low  grade  ore  than  to  pay  more 
for  better  ore  of  which  not  so  much  is  used.  In  the 
minds  of  some  whose  opinions  should  be  worthy  of  con- 
sideration the  value  of  a  fifty  per  cent,  ore  is  propor- 
tional to  the  value  of  a  forty-five  per  cent,  ore,  and  they 
argue  that  as  the  lower  grade  material  can  be  bought 
for  fifty  cents  per  ton,  or  1.11  cents  per  unit  of  iron,  the 
better  grade  material  is  worth  proportionally  more,  or 
55.5  cents  per  ten.  They  forget  that  the  value  of  an  ore 
increases  very  rapidly  as  one  nears  the  fifty  per  cent.. 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  J  THE  ORES.  27 

mark.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  if  a  forty-five  per  cent,  ore 
be  worth  fifty  cents,  a  fifty  per  cent,  ore  is  worth  83 
cents,  that  is,  it  will  cost  as  much  to  make  a  ton  of  iron 
from  the  one  at  50  cents  as  from  the  other  at  83  cents. 
Above  fifty  per  cent,  the  difference  becomes  even  more 
striking. 

Attempts  at  improving  the  quality  of  the  ores  used  in 
the  State  have  been  confined  so  far  almost  entirely  to  the 
brown  ores,  although  it  is  possible  to  better  the  soft  red 
ores  to  a  very  considerable  extent  also.  A  description 
of  the  methods  in  use  will  appear  under  each  kind  of 
ore,  so  that  it  is  merely  necessary  here  to  direct  atten- 
tion to  the  matter  in  a  general  way. 

The  ore  that  most  readily  lends  itself  to  processes  of 
beneficiation,  without  any  very  heavy  expense,  is  the 
limonite  or  brown  ore.  Occurring,  as  it  does,  as  more 
or  less  isolated  masses  imbedded  in  clay,  it  was  compar- 
atively easy  to  devise  machinery  that  would  treat  the 
entire  mass  of  stuff,  removing  the  clay  by  suspension 
in  water  and  passing  the  cleaned  ore  over  screens  of  ap- 
propriate sizes.  In  this  matter  the  clay,  unless  it  was 
of  a  very  plastic^nature,  was  removed  from  tire  ore,  the 
wash  water  being  collected  in  settling  dams  and  again 
used,  after  the  clay  haa  been  deposited.  The  process 
was  crude  at  first  and  the  ore  was  insufficiently  cleansed, 
but  of  late  years  it  had  been  much  improved  and  can 
now  be  depended  on  to  furnish  fairly  good  ore  from 
even  the  more  tenacious  clays. 

At  some  establishments  it  has  been  customary  to  im- 
prove the  brown  ores  still  further  by  calcining  the 
washed  ore  in  open  piles  with  wood  or  charcoal  ''breeze' ' 
as  fuel,  and,  later,  in  gas  fired  kilns.  In  this  manner 
the  ordinary  water  is  completely  removed,  and  the  com- 
bined water,  which  does  not  go  off  under  a  full  red  heat, 
to  an  extent  depending  on  the  temperature  and  the  dur- 


28  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

ation  of  the  firing.  Washed  brown  ore  carrying  44  per 
cent,  of  iron  has  been  greatly  improved  by  calcining, 
the  iron  in  the  calcined  ore  being  as  high  as  54  to  56 
per  cent,  over  a  period  of  several  months. 

While  it  is  now  customary  to  wash  nearly  all  the  brown 
ore  used  in  the  State,  but  little  calcining  is  done.  The 
reasons  for  this  practice  will  appear  under  the  discus- 
sion of  the  brown  ores,  and  it  will  be  shown  that  unless 
the  deposit  is  known  to  be  large  or  the  demands  upon  it 
not  very  exacting  as  to  quantity,  the  erection  of  calcin- 
ing kilns  could  not  be  expected  to  yield  much  return  011 
the  investment. 

For  improving  the  soft  red  ores  several  plans  have 
been  proposed,  but  none  of  them  have  worked  their  way 
into  actual  use  on  a  large  scale,  although  at  least  one  of 
them  may  now  be  said  to  have  passed  the  experimental 
stage.  It  was  proposed  to  wash  the  lower  grade  soft 
red  ores  in  such  a  manner  as  to  remove  the  more  ferru- 
ginous material  from  the  more  sandy  portion  and  to  re- 
cover the  ore  in  setting  dams.  Some  experiments  were 
very  successful  as  regards  the  possibility  of  concentrat- 
ing the  ore,  but  the  large  amount  of  water  required  at 
points  where  it  was  expensive  to  get  and  the  impracti- 
cability of  handling  large  quantities  of  damp  ore  that 
would  certainly  fall  into  the  finest  powder  as  soon  as  it 
was  charged  into  the  furnace  have  caused  the  investiga- 
tion to  be  postponed. 

During  the  last  two  or  three  years  extensive  experi- 
ments have  been  made  with  the  hope  of  concentrating 
these  ores  magnetically.  Two  plans  have  been  propos- 
ed. First,  to  render  the  ore  magnetic  by  raising  it  to  a 
full  red  heat  in  a  properly  constructed  kiln  and  then 
passing  a  reducing  gas  over  it  so  as  to  convert  the  ferric 
oxide  into  the  magnetic  oxide.  Subsequent  crushing 
and  sizing  would  bring  the  ore  into  a  condition  in  which 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  J  THE  ORES.  29 

it  could  be  treated  over  a  magnetic  separator,  the  sand, 
etc.,  being  removed  by  centrifugal  action. 

The  other  plan  for  magnetic  concentration  of  these 
low  grade  soft  ores  is  to  dry  them  thoroughly,  crush  and 
size  and  pass  over  a  magnetic  belt  which  will  pick  up 
the  more  ferruginous  portions  and  allow  the  more  sandy 
portions  to  fall  away  into  suitable  receptacles. 

Both  there  processes  will  be  described  in  the  chapter 
on  The  Concentration  of  Ores. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  may  be  said  that  in  actual 
practice  the  only  ores  subjected  to  a  process  of  beneficia- 
tion  on  a  large  scale  are  the  brown  ores.  Practically 
all  of  the  pig  iron  made  in  Alabama  is  obtained  from 
native  ores.  In  this  respect  the  situation  is  quite  the 
reverse  of  that  found  in  Ohio,  which  with  a  pig  iron 
production  of  1,463,789  tons  in  1895,  and  1,196,326  tons 
in  1896,  probably  did  not  derive  more  than  3  %  of  it 
from  native  ore.  The  only  ores  brought  into  Alabama 
for  any  purpose  are  some  brown  ore  from  Georgia,  a 
little  "  spathite  "  ore  from  Tennessee,  and  Lake  ore  for 
use  as  ' '  fix  "  in  the  rolling  mills. 

The  production  and  value  of  the  ore  mined  in  the 
State,  so  far  as  canjnow  be  ascertained,  are  given  in  the 
following  table,  compiled  from  the  reports  of  Mr.  John 
Birkinbine  to  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  Di- 
vision of  Mineral  Resources,  from  the  census  returns  and 
from  independent  sources. 


30 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


TABLE  III. 

PRODUCTION  AND  VALUE  OF  IRON  ORES  IN 
ALABAMA  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ALABAMA.                            UNITED  STATES. 

Value. 

Per- 
cent. 

Value. 

Tons. 

of 

Pro- 

Tons. 

. 

Per 

Total. 

duc- 

Per 

Total. 

Ton 

tion. 

;   ion. 

1850 

1,838 

$3.68 

$         6,770 

0.12 

1,579,  31S 

$  4.23!     $     6.98L.679 

1860 

3,720 

5.31 

19,765 

0.15 

2,401,485 

5.31 

12,757,848 

1870 

11,350 

2.66 

30,175 

021 

5,302,952 

5.63 

29.843,420 

1880 

171,189 

1.18 

201,865 

2.3 

7,497,509 

300 

23,156,955 

1881 

220,000 

1.30 

286,000 

2.4 

9,094,369 

2.97 

27,000,000 

1882 

250,000 

1.20 

300.000 

2.8 

9,000,000 

360 

::2,400,000 

1883 

385,000 

1.20 

462.000 

4.6 

8,240,594 

3.00 

24,750,000 

1884|    420,000 

1.00 

320.000 

5.1 

8,200,000 

2.75 

22,550,000 

1885 

505.000 

1.00 

505,000 

6.6 

7.600.000 

2.50 

19,000,000 

188" 

650,000 

0.96 

624.000 

6.5 

10,000,000!     2  80 

28,000.000 

1887 

675.000 

0.96 

648,000 

6.0 

11.300.000     3  00 

33,900,000 

1888 

1,000,000 

0.9H 

960,000    8.3 

12,060,000 

2.40 

28,944,000 

1889 

,570,000 

0.96 

1,507,200110.9 

14,518.041 

2.30 

33,351,978 

1890 

,897,815 

1.00 

1,897,815 

11.8 

16,0360431     2.20 

35,279,394 

1891 

,986.830 

1.00 

1.986,830 

13.6 

14,591,178|     210 

30,641,473 

1892 

,312,071 

1.06 

2,442,575 

14.2 

16,296.666 

2.04 

33,204,896 

1898 

,742,410 

1.86}    1,490,259 

15.0 

11.587.629 

1.66 

19,265,973! 

1894 

493,086 

0.83 

1.240,895 

12.6 

LI,  879,679 

1.14 

13,577,325 

1895 

2,199,390 

0.80 

1,759,512 

13.8 

15,957,614 

1.14 

18,191,679 

3896 

2,041,7931    0.69 

1.417,451 

12.8 

16,005,449 

1.42 

22,788,069 

1897 

2.098.621     074     1.546.543111.9 

17.518.046 

1.08 

18.953.221 

For  a  number  of  years  Michigan  has  held  the  first 
place  as  a  producer  of  iron  ore,  Minnesota  coming  up 
from  the  6th  place  in  1890  to  the  second  place  in  1894, 
1895  and  1896. 

It  is  not  likely  that  Alabama's  rank  as  third  in  the 
production  of  iron  ore  will  be  interfered  with  for  some 
years. 

She  held  the  second  place  from  1889  till  1894,  when 
she  was  surpassed  by  Minnesota,  and  Pennsylvania  the 
third  place  until  1892  when  Minnesota  came  up  to  the 
second  place.  It  is  not  likely  that  the  relative  positions 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  THE  ORES.  31 

will  be  changed  for  some  years.  The  immensity  of  the 
Mesabi  ore  deposits  and  the  cheapness  with  which  they 
are  mined  will,  perhaps,  keep  Minnesota  in  the  second 
place  for  the  next  two  years,  if  indeed  she  does  not  push 
Michigan  for  first  place  within  that  time.  Michigan 
does  not  produce  much  pig  iron,  the  output  being  132,- 
578  tons  in  1897.  Minnesota  made  no  iron-in  1894,  nor 
in  1895,  nor  1896.  The  difficulty  of  procuring  good  coke 
at  that  distance  from  the  coal  fields  has  hitherto  pre- 
vented these  States  from  converting  their  ore  into  iron, 
and  the  tendency  seems  to  be  more  and  more  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  these  ores  to  Illinois,  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania 
furnaces.  But  it  is  a  wise  man  who  prophesies  concern, 
ing  the  iron  trade  in  this  day  of  rapid  industrial  changes. 
It  would  appear,  however,  that  Alabama  will  have  to 
face  competition  from  furnaces  much  nearer  than  Michi- 
gan and  Minnesota.  It  is  just  here  that  questions  of 
transportation  play  the  really  vital  part.  So  long  as  the 
rich  Lake  ores  can  be  hauled  to  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania 
furnaces  and  converted  into  pig  iron  which  can  be  sold 
profitably  for  half  a  cent  per  pound,  the  situation  in 
Alabama  will  be  one  in  which  the  cost  of  transporting 
the  iron  to  market  after  it  is  made  is  the  main  question. 
With  the  Northern  and  Eastern  furnaces  the  great 
question  is  the  cost  of  gathering  the  raw  materials  into 
the  stockhouse.  In  Alabama  the  great  question  is  the 
cost  of  marketing  the  pig  iron.  With  better  ore,  better 
coke,  and  better  furnace  practice  it  may  be  possible  even 
in  Alabama  to  reduce  the  cost  of  making  iron,  but  the 
transportation  companies  will  control  the  situation  then 
as  they  do  now,  unless  a  closer  union  can  be  effected  be- 
tween the  two  interests. 


32  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

According  to  the  Iron  Trade  Re  view,  Cleveland,  Ohior 
the  Lake  shipments  of  iron  ore  in  1892,  were  8,545,313 
tons  ;  in  1893,  5,836,749  tons  ;  in  1894,  7,621,620  tons  ;  in 
1895,  10,234,910  tons;  in  1896,  9,916,035  tons,  and  in 
1897,  12,457,002  tons.  These  figures  mean  that  consid- 
erably more  than  half  of  the  total  amount  of  iron  ore 
mined  in  the  United  States  is  transported  by  water  to 
the  vicinity  of  the  furnaces  using  it.  Were  it  not  for 
this  fact  the  enormous  development  that  has  been 
reached  in  the  Lake  regions,  with  respect  to  the  mining 
of  iron  ore,  could  not  have  been  attained  within  so  short 
a  time,  if  at  all. 

In  order  to  exhibit  the  relation  that  Alabama  sustains 
to  the  other  iron  ore  producing  states,  in  respect  to  the 
value  of  the  ore  mined,  the  following  table  taken  from 
the  reports  of  Mr.  John  Birkinbine  to  the  U.  S.  Geo- 
logical Survey,  Division  of  Mineral  Resources,  is  ap- 
pended. 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  THE  ORES. 


33 


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34 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 


TABLE  IV—  Continued. 

Total  Valuation  and  Average  Value  Per  Ton  of  Iron  Ore  Produced  in  the  United  States  in 
1889,  1892,  1892,  8893,  1894,  1896,  1897. 

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IRON  MAtflNk  IN  ALABAMA  ;  THE  HEMATITES .  35 

CHAPTER    II. 

THE  ORES  :     SPECIAL   DISCUSSION; 
THE  HEMATITES. 


In  the  discussion  of  the  hematite  ores  we  shall  have 
to  exclude  the  brown  hematites  as  they  properly  belong, 
to  the  limonites,  although  often  mis-called  by  the  former 
name.  The  limonites  are  locally  termed  "brown  ores" 
and  the  output  is  about  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  ore  pro- 
duction of  the  State.  They  will  be  discussed  under  their 
proper  heading. 

The  hematite  ores  are,  for  convenience,  classed  under 
two  heads  : 

First,  the  soft  red  ores,  carrying  but  little  lime  and 

Second,  the  "  hard  red  "  ores  carrying  from  12  to  20 
per  cent,  of  lime  and  in  many  cases  self-fluxing,  that  is, 
they  carry  enough  lime  to  flux  the  silica  contained  in 
them . 

In  order  that  a  clear  understanding  of  the  matter  may 
be  had  at  the  outset  the  following  brief  description  of 
the  geological  and  topographical  feature  of  the  deposit 
of  hematite  ores  so  largely  used  in  the  State  is  given 
here. 

They  belong  to  the  Clinton  formation  of  the  Silurian, 
which  extends  with  some  breaks,  from  the  middle  por- 
tion of  Alabama  to  the  northern  part  of  Maine.  They 
are  overlaid  by  chert,  sandstones,  and  clays,  the  over- 
burden at  places  reaching  a  depth  of  forty  and  fifty  feet. 
The  seams  now  worked  vary  in  thickness  from  3  to  25 
feet,  run  in  a  north-east  directipn  and  dip  towards  the 
south-east  at  angles  varying  f:om  15  to  22  degrees,  the 
dip  increasing  as  one  goes  towards  the  south-west!  For 


36         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA, 

the  most  part  they  occupy  the  crests  of  the  hills,  the 
outcrop  forming  a  striking  and  persistent  feature  of 
the  landscape  for  several  miles  in  the  vicinity  of  Bir- 
mingham. 

The  Soft  Ores. 

As  a  rule,  to  which,  however,  there  are  some  import- 
ant exceptions,  the  outcrop  is  "  soft  red,"  a  term  of  com- 
parative significance  only  as  the  ore]is  quite  firm  and  has 
to  be  won  by  regular  blasting  operations.  It  is  soft  as 
compared  with  the  limey  or  "hard  red"  ore.  The  soft 
ore  may  extend  from  the  outcrop  for  a  distance  of  300 
feet  on  the  dip,  depending  on  the  thickness  and  imper- 
viousness  of  the  cover,  although  the  hard  ore  conies  to 
the  surface  at  more  than  one  place. 

In  winning  the  soft  red,  the  overburden  is  removed 
and  the  ore  mined,  at  day,  by  benches.  Under  cover 
the  ore  becomes  limey  and  hard  and  is  mined  from  in- 
clines on  the  dip  by  drifts  and  slopes. 

The  soft  ore  is  the  hard  ore  with  the  lime  removed  by 
atmospheric  influences  and  is  richer  in  iron  the  poorer 
it  is  in  lime,  When  the  overbruden  is  stripped  off  there 
is  found  a  seam  of  ore  quite  soft  and  seemingly  disin- 
tegrated, of  a  deep  red  or  purple  color,  the  so-called 
"  gouge. 5>  It  may  be  only  a  few  inches  thick  but  often 
runs  to  24  and  even  36  inches,  and  comprises  generally 
the  best  part  of  the  ore.  Underneath  this  begins  the 
more  solid  ore  diminishing  in  content  of  iron  according 
to  the  vertical  depth.  The  best  quality  of  " gouge"  will 
carry  52  per  cent,  of  iron  while  ten  feet  below  its  line  of 
demarcation  the  iron  falls  to  about  46  per  cent.  Be- 
tween the  "  gouge  "  and  the  ore  .proper  there  is  often  a, 
thin  seam  of  yellowish  clay,  which,  however,  is  by  no 
means  constant  in  strike.  In  the  more  solid  ore,  be- 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  THE  HEMATITES  3? 

neath  the  "  gouge,"  there  are  seams  of  the  same  clay, 
sometimes  as  much  as  two  inches  thick  but  for  the  most 
part  not  above  half  an  inch  thick.  In  the  early  days  of 
iron  making  in  the  Birmingham  district  it  was  the  cus- 
tom to  mine  15  to  20  feet  of  the  soft  ore  and  to  send  the 
whole  material  to  the  furnace.  Of  late  years,  however, 
the  mining  has  been  restricted  to  ten  feet,  including  the 
'V  gouge  "  as  it  was  found  that  below  this  depth  the  ore 
rapidly  became  siliceous  and  unfit  for  use.  Taking  the 
-content  of  metallic  iron  in  the  "gouge"  at  fifty  per 
cent,  as  mined,  the  loss  in  iron  according  to  vertical 
depth,  is  about  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  per  foot.  This 
would  bring  the  iron  in  the  first  ten  feet  of  the  seam  to 
forty-five  per  cent,  and  in  the  next  ten  feet  to  forty  per 
cent.  A  large  number  of  analyses  extending  over  sev- 
eral years  show  that  when  the  mining  is  limited  to  the 
ten  foot  mark  the  iron  content  is  a  little  over  47  per 
cent,  in  the  ore  as  mined,  i.  e.,  with  seven  per  cent,  of 
water,  and  including  the  "  gouge."  The  rapid  increase 
of  the  silica  in  the  ore  below  the  ten  foot  mark  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  to  get  even  47  per  cent,  of  iron  in  the 
upper  ten  feet  from  one-fifth  to  one-third  of  it  must  be 
composed  of  the  "gouge,"  with  its  50  per  cent,  of 
iron. 

The  following  successions  of  materials  has  been  ob- 
served at  East  No.  2  mine  on  Red  Mt.  south  of  Grace's 
Gap,  and  about  4  miles  from  Birmingham.  The  over- 
burden here  was  24i  feet  thick,  and  was  removed  before 
.any  of  the  ore  was  mined.  In  places  the  overburden  is 
not  so  heavy,  and  in  other  places  it  is  heavier.  There'  is 
no  general  rule  in  regard  to  the  thickness  of  the  over 
burden  or  its  nature.  Within  two  miles  of  this  locality 
towards  the  southwest  the  overburden  is  a  great  deal 
thicker,  and  of  a  different  character. 


38  GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

SECTION    I. 

VERTICAL  SECTION  AT  EAST  NO.    -2  MINE, 
-RED  MT.  SOFT  RED  ORE. 


Ft.  In. 

Soil  and  red  clay 6  0 

Sandstone 3  0 

Clay 0  1 

Sandstone 1  0 

Clay 0  2 

Ore 0  6 

Clay 0  2 

Ore 0  31 

Clay 0  1 

Ore 0  4 

€lay 0  4 

Ore 0  4 

Clay ."..' 0  i 

Ore 1  1 

Clay ..., 0  2 

Ore...; 0  10 

Clay ,....  0  1 

Ore 0  2i 

Clay .........  0  i 

Ore.... 0  i 

<€lay.... 0  1 

0  2 

0  * 

grained  ore , 0  2 

Clay. 0  2 

iPine  grained  ore. . . .  1  4 

Slate..  0  i 


IRON  'MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  THE    HEMATITES.  39 

Pine  grained  ore  ..........................  0  5 

Clay  .....................................  '0  1 

Fine  grained  ore  ............  ..........  ......  0  7 

Slate  :    ...................................  0  1 

Fine  grained  ore  ..........................  0  4 

Slate  ...............................  .  .....  0  2 

Sandy  ore  ................................  0  1 

Slate...  ....  ...............................  0.1 

Sandy  ore  ................................  0  2 

Slate  ........................  '  .....  ........  1  0 

Sandy  ore  ...............  .................  0  !6 

Slate...    ...  .............................  0  1 

Sandy  ore  ................................  0  7 

Slate".  ...................................  0  1 

Limy  ore  .................................  0  2 

Slate  .....  ................................  0  i 

Limy  ore   ...............................  0  2 

Slate  ................  .  .............  .......  0  | 

Limy  ore  ...................  .  .............  0  8 

Clay  ......................  ................  !0  i 

Sandy  ore  .............  ...................  '0  & 

Slate    ....................................  0  3 

Sandy  ore  ........................  ........  0  3 

Slate  and  sandy  ore  ........................  0  6 

Sandy  ore  .  .  .  .............................  0  "1 

Clay  seam  .........................  .......  0  £ 

Sandy  ore  ____  ,  ...................  ...  .....  0  8 

Slate  .............  ......  ................  .  0  1 

Sandstone  ____  .  .  ........  ....  ...........  .....  0  J6 

Good  ore  ........  ........  ..............  ..  1*0  $ 

Poor  ore  ............  '.[  ....................  13  0 


slate  bottom  ...........  ...  .....     46      7 

The  occurrence  of  thin  seams  of  limey  ore  above  the 


40  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

big  seam  of  soft  ore  is  noteworthy,  as  also  thin  seams 
of  sandy,  lime-free  ore  and  limey  oreare  iriterstratified, 
being  separated  by  thin  partings  of  slate.  It  is  also 
remarkable  that  the  fine  grained  ore  carries  much  less 
phosphorus  than  the  ordinary  soft  ore  of  coarser  text- 
ure, and  the  limey  ore.  Whatever  phosphorizing  agen- 
cies were  at  work  when  these  ores  were  deposited,  or 
subsequently,  they  do  not  seem  to  have  affected  all  the 
ore  alike.  For  instance,  the  ordinary,  medium  and 
coarse  grained  soft  ore  carries  generally  from  0.30  %  to 
0.40  %  of  phosphorus,  but  the  fine  grained  ore  carries 
not  more  than  one-half  this  amount,  and  has  been  found 
with  only  0.10  %.  Furthermore,  there  is  a  2  to  3  foot 
seam  of  soft  ore,  near  Village  Springs,  20  miles  north- 
east of  Birmingham,  that  carries  5.40  %  of  phosphorus 
in  one  place  and  2.30  %  in  another.  At  Lone  Pino 
Gap,  opposite  Birmingham,  soft  red  ore  has  been  found 
with  46  %  of  iron,  and  0.06  %  of  phosphorus.  In  any 
one  particular  kind  of  ore  the  phosphorus  appears  to  be 
of  uniform  distribution,  but  in  the  same  vertical  section 
where  thin  seams  and  thick  occur,  where  fine  grained 
and  coarse  grained  ore  is  found,  different  amounts  of 
phosphorus  are  met  with.  The  matter  is  chiefly  of 
scientific  interest,  but  has  not  been  fully  investigated. 
It  must  not  be  suppposed  that  the  succession  of  mate- 
rial, as  already  given,  is  always  the  same.  Within  2 
miles  of  East  No.  2,  towards  the  southwest  at  the  Fossil 
mines  quite  another  arrangement  may  be  seen.  With 
the  exception  of  the  limey  ore,  which  does  not  appear  in 
the  overburden  at  the  place  examined,  the  materials  are 
the  same,  but  the  succession  and  the  development  are 
different.  The  object  of  the  mining  at  both  places  was 
the  same,  viz.,  to  win  the  soft  red  ore.  At  East  No.  2 
the  overburden  wast  24-J-  feet  thick,  at  Fossil  it  was  66 


41 

feet,  the  dip  of  the  ore  at  East  No.  2  was    19  degrees  to 
the  southeast  and  at  Fossil  22-J-  degrees. 

The  thickest  single  stratum  at  East  No.  2,  above  the 
•ore  was  3  feet  of  sandstone,  while  this  material  had  in- 
creased in  thickness  to  26  feet  at  Fossil.  At  East  No.  2 
again  the  overburden  was  composed  of  no  less  than  56 
separate  strata  in  the  24i  feet,  while  at  Fossil,  in  66  feet 
there  were  also  56  separate  strata.  The  fine  grained  ore 
and  the  limy  ore  in  the  overburden  at  East  No.  2  are 
lacking  at  Fossil.  It  was  difficult  to  get  the  vertical 
section  at  Fossil,  as  the  writer  had  to  be  let  down  with 
&  rope  alongside  the  face,  but  it  is  thought  that  it  is 
approximately  correct. 


42  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA 


SECTION  II. 

VERTICAL    SECTION    AT  FOSSIL,    ;RED   MOUN- 
TAIN, SOFT  RED  ORE. 

!Fx.  IN. 

Soil  and  red  clay 4  0 

,Sandstone. 26  0 

,Clay 0  2 

•Sandstone 1  4 

Clay . 0  2 

Sandstone 1  2 

Clay 0  1 

Sandstone 1    .     7 

Clay 0  1 

Sandstone 2  2 

Clay 0  6 

Sandstone 1  1 

Clay 0  '1 

Sandstone '0  8 

Clay 0  7 

Sandstone 1  4 

Clay 0  8 

Sandstone 2  0 

Ore 2  0 

Sandy  ore 3  0 

Clay 0  a 

Sandy  ore 1  6 

Clay 0  2 

Sandy  ore 1  0 

Clay 1  0 

Sandy  ore 0  3 

Clay 0  3 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  THE  HEMATITES.         43 

FT.     IN. 

Sandy  ore 1  0 

Clay.' 0  3 

Ore .  . 0  9 

Clay 0  2 

Sandy  ore 0  1 

<Clay' 0  6 

Sandy  ore 0  2 

Clay.. 0  3 

Ore 1  0 

•Clay 0  2 

Ore 0  9 

-Clay 0  1 

Ore.  . 0  2 

Clay ,...' 0  5 

Ore 0  5 

Clay 0  8 

Ore 0  8 

Clay 0  6 

Sandy  ore 0  2 

iClay 0  1 

Sandy  ore... 0  1 

Clay ,0  1 

Sandy  ore 0  4 

Clay.  . 0  2 

Good  ore 2  0 

Clay 0  5 

jQre 0  6 

,Clay .............. 0  2 

Good  ore 3  0 

Clay 0  1 

Good  ore 6  4 

Clay .'.  1  .5 

Good  rOtre 9  0 

Intermixed  ore  and  .clay . . $  *0 

Yellow  si^ale  bottom — 


44  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

In  Vol.  XV.  10th  U.  S.  Census,  Mr.  A.  A.  Blair  gives 
some  very  detailed  analyses  of  the  soft  red  ore  used  in 
the  Birmingham  district.  An  average  of  those  quoted 
is  herewith  given  : 

Dry  basis  % 

Silica 13.66 

Sulphur 0.11 

Phosphorus 0.43 

Alumina. 6.13 

Lime 1.26 

Magnesia 0.37 

Manganese  protoxide 0.30 

Iron  protoxide 0.32 

Iron  peroxide 75.05 

Carbonic  acid • 0 .08 

Carbon  in  carbonaceous  matter 0.03 

Water  of  composition 1.62 


Metallic  iron,  52.87  per  cent.  99.36 

Specific  gravity  4. 

This  average  shows  a  greater  amount  of  alumina  and 
metallic  iron,  and  much  less  silica  than  is  usually  the 
case  with  this  class  of  ore. 

An  average  analysis  of  stock  house  samples  shows : 

Dry. 

Iron 47.24 50.80 

Silica 17.20 18.50 

Alumina 3.35.. ..   3.60 

Lime 1.12 1.20 

Water 7.00 

For  practical  purposes  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  so  fully 
into  detail,  and  it  is  customary  to  determine  merely  the 
insoluble  matter  and  the  iron.  With  a  few  ores  of  this 
class  which  carry  unusual  amounts  of  alumina  this  in- 
gredient is  also  determined.  But  for  every  day  practice 


IRON  MAKINGS  IN  ALABAMA  J  THE  HEMATITES.  45 

and  with  slags  of  33  to  36  per  cent,  silica  the  alumina  is 
considered  as  silica  and  reported  with  it  as  "insoluble." 
It  is  a  fortunate  circumstance  that  the  soft  red  ores, 
when  finely  ground,  yield  their  iron  to  acid  solution 
without  fusion,  the  insoluble  residue  being  of  a  creamy 
white  appearance  and  carrying  seldom  more  than  0.20 
per  cent,  of  iron.  For  blast  furnace  purposes  and  where 
the  ore  is  not  sold  on  the  unit  system  the  easy  solubility 
of  the  ore  is  a  point  of  great  importance,  especially  when 
many  analyses  must  be  made  within  a  short  time.  About 
one-half  of  the  alumina  present  goes  into  solution  with 
the  iron  but  may  be  neglected  under  the  conditions  that 
obtain  in  the  district  with  respect  to  the  variation  in  the 
composition  of  the  cinder.  In  calculating  furnace  bur- 
dens the  error  arising  from  neglecting  the  alumina  and 
reckoning  it  as  silica  is  comparatively  slight,  as  the  ratio 
between  the  silica  and  the  alumina  is  as  1  to  0.87. 

The  insoluble  matter  in  most  of  the  soft  red  ore  as 
used  in  the  State  is  23  per  cent.,  and  the  iron  46  per 
cent.,  with  water  at  7  per  cent.  The  ordinary  ratio  be- 
tween the  metallic  iron  and  the  insoluble  matter  varies 
from  1  to  1.50  to  1 :2.  To  illustrate. 

Water  T%. 
Insoluble. 
Iron.  Matter. 

40 35.00  "| 

41 33.00  | 

42 31.00  |  For  each    1    per    cent. 

43 29.00  >     increase   in   the    iron 

44 27.00  |      the     insoluble  matter 

45 25.00  I      falls  2  per  cent. 

46 23.00  J 

47 .22.00") 

48 20.50 

49 19.00     For  each    1    per    cent. 

50 17.50  (^     increase  in    the  iron 

51 16.00  f      the   insoluble   matter 

52 14.50        falls  1.50  per  cent. 

53 13.00 

54 1 


46  GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  carry  the  list  further,  as  the  sup- 
ply of  fifty-four  per  cent,  soft  red  ore  is  limited.  It  is 
not  claimed  that  this  ratio  is  absolutely  correct,  but  a 
large  number  of  analyses  substantiate  its  reliability  for 
ordinary  purposes.  The  ratio  from  40  iron  through  46 
iron  is  as  1  :2.  Beginning  with  iron  47  and  insoluble 
22,  the  ratio  appears  to  be  nearer  1  :1.50  than  1  :2,  for 
with  iron  48  the  insoluble  matter-  is  about  20.50.  It 
may,  therefore,  be  said  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy 
that  a  soft  red  ore  carrying  40  per  cent,  of  iron  may  be 
expected  to  contain  35  per  cent,  one  with  45  per  cent, 
of  iron  25  per  cent,  and  one  with  50  per  cent,  of  iron 
17.50  per  cent,  of  insolute  matter.  There  are,  of  course 
exceptions  to  this  rule  and  it  does  some  times  occur  that 
an  ore  with  46  per  cent,  of  iron  will  be  found  to  carry 
22  per  cent,  and  one  with  48  per  cent,  of  iron  will'have 
21  or  22  per  cent,  of  insoluble  matter.  But  on  the  whole 
the1  fact  remains  that  an  ore  with  45  per  cent,  of  iron 
will  carry  25  percent,  of  insoluble,  and  one  with  50 per 
cent,  of  iron  from  17  to  18  per  cent.,  and  the  lisft  may 
be  used  as  an  approximation  to  the  truth. 

In  texture,  the  soft  red  ore  is  a  mass  of  minute  silic- 
eous pebbles  held  in  a  ferruginous  cement.  The  pebbles 
are  seldom  larger  than  a  No.  4  shot,  and  are  frequently 
much  smaller.  They  are  all  more  or  less  rounded  and 
stained  reddish-brown.  The  cementing  material  is  softer 
tban  the  pebbles,  and  on  sizing  even  a  very  lean  ore  the 
material  passing  a  screen  of  fifty  meshes  per  linear  inch 
is  much  richer  in  iron  than  the  material  remaining  on  a 
10  or  a  20, mesh  screen.  A  soft  red  ore  of  40  per  cent, 
iron,  on  being  ground  to  pass  a  ten  mesh  screen,  will 
yield  through  a  fifty  mesh  53  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  the 
amount  passing  the  50  mesh  screen  is  from  25  to  30  per 
cent,  of  the  ore,  by  weight. 

So  far  as  concerns  their  physical  structure,  this  is  one 


IJEION    MAKING'  IN  ALABAMA  ;    THE   HEMATITES.  47 

of  the  points  of  differentiation  between  the  soft  red  and 
the  so-called  brown  ores,  for  these,  on  being  sized,  show-- 
a  steady  loss  of  iron  the  finer  the  screen.  The  fact  of 
increasing  richness  in  iron  the  finer  the  screen  renders 
the  concentration  of  the  low  grade  soft  red  <  ores  much 
simpler  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case,  as  the  "fines'7 
can  be  briquetted  without  further  treatment,  and  the 
troublesome  question  of  handling  them  becomes  com- 
paratively easy .  The  rounded  form  of  the  more  siliceous 
pebbles  also  occasions  less  wear  on  the  shutes,  screens, 
and  conveyors  ;  a  p^oint  of  no  little  moment  in ^concentra- 
ting works. 

The  better  grades  of  the  soft  red  ore  do  n;ot  occur  at 
every  point  on  Red  Mountain,  nor  is  it  possible  to  mine 
even  ten  feet  profitably  everywhere  along  the  ridge.  It  is 
frequently  the  case  that  the  inferior   ore  sets  in,   as  the 
saying  is,   "at  the  grass  roots,"  and  even    the    richer 
*  'gouge"  is  sometimes   absent.     Mining  operations  can 
not  be  undertaken  without  careful  prospecting  and  many 
analyses ,  for  the  difference  between  a  fairly  good  ore  and 
one  that  is  not  passable  is  often  so   slight  as  to  deceive" 
even  the  most  experienced  man  who  grades   merely    by 
the  eye.     After  having  become  accustomed  to  a  partic- 
ular kind  of  ore,  one  may  judge  of  its  quality  by  the  ap- 
pearance with  a  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy:     While 
for  the  most  part  the  soft  ores  are  of  the  same  general 
texture    and    color,    it  not  infrequently  happens   that 
serious  mistakes  may  be  made  unless  the  services  of  a 
chemist  are  called  into  requisition .     When  freshly  mined 
the  ore  is  of  a  deep  red  color,  inclining   to  purplish'  red 
in  the  richer  portions,  but  on  drying  there  is  assumed 
something.of  a  brownish  tint.     For  ordinary  stockhouse 
delivery  the  ore  contains  on  the  average  7  per- cent,   of 
hygroscopic  water,  which,   owing  to  the  coarse-grained 
nature,  soon  dries  out  under  cover. 


48    *         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

In  the  early  days  of  iron  making  in  the  Birmingham 
district,  before  the  real  value  of  the  limy  or  hard  ores 
was  generally  accepted,  the  furnace  burden  was  com- 
posed almost  entirely  of  the  soft  ores.  Of  late  years, 
however,  the  tendency  is  decidedly  towards  a  greater  and 
greater  proportion  of  the  limy  ore,  the  proportion  rising 
at  times  to  above  90  per  cent,  of  the  ore  burden.  It  is 
still  to  some  extent  a  mooted  question  as  to  the  relative 
reducibility  of  the  two  ores,  but  a  careful  investigation 
of  the  subject  would,  we  think,  show  that  in  this  respect 
the  limy  ore  has  the  advantage.  When  the  soft  ore 
descends  into  the  zone  of  reduction  in  the  furnace,  it 
does  so  without  losing  its  firmness  of  texture.  Even 
after  it  has  become  red  hot.  or  white  hot,  it  maintains 
its  shape,  except  as  this  may  be  changed  by  friction 
during  the  descent.  The  reducing  gases  act  upon  it  in 
the  lump,  and  if  the  lumps  be  of  considerable  size  the 
reduction  to  metallic  iron  may  be  delayed  and  the  ore 
may  appear  before  the  tuyeres. 

The  case  is  quite  otherwise  with  the  limy  ore.  The 
lime  is  present  as  carbonate,  (except  such  as  may  be 
combined  with  the  phosphorus  as  phosphate  of  lime,  an 
amount  rarely  exceeding  0.50%  ,)  and  when  this  reaches 
a  point  in  the  furnace  at  which  its  carbonic  acid  begins 
to  come  off,  the  ore  begins  to  fall  to  pieces .  The  friction 
of  the  other  materials  aids  this  tendency  quite  as  much 
as,  and  perhaps,  more  than  in  the  case  of  the  soft  ore. 
The  reducing  gases  can  and  do  have  a  greater  ore  sur- 
face to  work  on  and  the  result  is  that  for  a  given  weight 
of  coke  and  a  given  composition  of  the  gas  there  is 
greater  reducing  action.  The  soft  ore  is  more  fusible 
than  the  limy  ore,  but  this  does  not  necessarily  mean 
that  it  is  more  easily  penetrated  by  the  reducing  gases 
within  the  furnace.  On  the  contrary  a  fused  crust  on 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  THE  HEMATITES.  49 

the  outside  of  a  piece  of  soft  ore  interposes  considerable 
opposition  to  the  passage  of  the  gases,  and  as  this  crust 
becomes  thicker  and  thicker  the  gases  penetrate  with 
more  and  more  difficulty.  In  the  case  of  the  limy  ore 
as  soon  as  it  begins  to  part  with  its  carbonic  acid  it  be- 
gins to  disintegrate,  and  this  very  fact  of  disintegration 
enables  it  to  receive  to  better  advantage  the  reducing 
power  of  the  gases. 

In  comparing  the  two  ores  another  circumstance  must 
not  be  lost  sight  of,  and  that  is  the  intimate  comming- 
ling of  the  ore  and  the  lime  that  is  to  flux  it.  This  is  a 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  lime  ores.  It  would 
be  impracticable  to  effect  by  artificial  means  such  an  in- 
timate mixture  of  ore  and  lime  as  Nature  has  already 
provided  in  these  o*res.  This  circumstance  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  any  discussion  of  the  relative 
value  of  the  soft  and  the  lime  ores,  for  while  these  latter 
require  a  higher  heat  for  fusion  they  are  not  therefore  to 
be  considered  less  easily  reducible. 

The  reducibility  of  an  ore  depends  far  more  upon  its 
permeability  or  porosity  than  upon  its  fusing  point.  For 
the  most  part  the  loss  of  energy  in  a  furnace  is  chargea- 
ble to  lack  of  reducing  power  rather  than  to  lack  of  fus- 
ing power. 

The  tendency  now  is  more  and  more  towards  the  use 
of  the  limy  ores;  for  the  enormous  demand  that  has  been 
made  on  the  better  quality  of  the  soft  ore  within  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  Birmingham  has  begun  to  make 
itself  felt. 

Three  courses  of  action  may  be  open  :  First,  the  in- 
creasing proportion  of  limy  ore  in  the  burden  may  in- 
duce the  furnacemen  to  look  towards  the  use  of  eighty 
or  ninety  per  cent,  of  it,  the  difference  being  made  up 
with  soft  and  brown  ore.  Second,  other  sources  of  soft 
ore  may  be  utilized.  Third,  the  lower  grades  of  the  soft 
4 


50  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

ore,  now  remaining  in  the  ground,  may  be  concentrated 
and  made  to  take  the  place  of  the  ore  that  has  been  re- 
moved. It  is  not  thought  that  the  proportion  of  brown 
ore  used  will  be  materially  increased. 

Under  the  existing  conditions  it  would  appear  advisa- 
ble to  begin  at  once  to  increase  the  proportion  of  limy 
ore  used,  so  as  to  establish  on  the  basis  of  wider  experi- 
ence the  economic  relation  that  this  burden  would  sus- 
tain to  former  practice,  or  to  push  the  work  of  concen- 
trating the  lower  grades  of  soft  ore  to  some  definite  re- 
sult. 

The  experiments  on  concentrating  soft  ore,  to  which 
some  allusion  has  already  been  made,  showed  the  possi- 
bility of  taking  an  ore  of  40%  iron  and  35%  silica  and 
.bringing  the  ore  to  57%  and  the  silica  to  15%,  on  the 
average.  In  this  process  two  tons  of  raw  ore  were  re- 
quired to  make  one  ton  of  concentrates.  The  matter  is 
fully  discussed  in  Chapter  VII  on  the  Concentration  of 
Low-grade  Ores. 

The  Limy,  or  so-called  Hard  Ore. 

The  ore  sets  in  sometimes  at  the  outcrop  but  much 
more  frequently  it  is  found  only  under  cover  and  is  the 
continuation  of  the  soft  ore  in  the  direction  of  the  dip. 
-For  distances  varying  from  nothing  to  300  feet  on  the 
dip  the  ore  is  soft,  then  the  hard  ore  begins  and  con- 
tinues to  depths  not  yet  ascertained  but  certainly  very 
•considerable.  In  other  words,  as  has  been  already  stat- 
ed, the  hard  ore,  which  originally  appeared  at  the  sur- 
face, has  been  deprived  of  its  carbonic  acid  by  atmos- 
pheric influences  and  converted  into  soft  ore  along  the 
dip  to  varying  depths,  the  lime  having  been  removed  by 
.leaching.  Relatively  the  same  differences  that  are  to 
be  observed  in  the  soft  ore  from  various  places  are  also 
found  in  the  hard  ores.  There  are  points  along  the 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  INTRODUCTION.  51 

mountain  where  the  minable  seam  of  soft  ore  is  better 
than  at  others,  and  there  are  places  where  the  hard  ore 
is  better  than  at  others. 

On  a  vertical  section  of  the  soft  ore  the  content  in  iron 
decreases  downward,  the  rate  b^ing  about  one-half  of  one 
per  cent,  per  foot.  The  rale  holds  good  for  the  hard  ore 
on  a  vertical  section.  The  mining  on  the  big  seam  of 
soft  ore  is  now  confined  for  the  most  part  to  the  upper 
ten  feet,  the  mining  on  the  hard  ore  is  also  the  same, 
and  below  the  ten-foot  mark  the  hard  ore  also  be- 
comes too  siliceous  for  economic  use.  The  hard  ore  de- 
rives its  value  from  two  circumstances,  first  there  is  a 
great  deal  more  of  it  than  of  the  soft  ore,  because  it  ex- 
tends to  very  considerable  depths,  and  second  because  of 
the  intimate  admixture  of  carbonate  of  lime  with  the 
ferruginous  material.  The  best  hard  ore  carries  more 
lime  than  is  required  to  flax  its  silica,  while  in  the  ordi- 
nary grades  the  ratio  of  one  of  silica  to  one  of  lime  is 
generally  conserved.  When  this  is  the  case  the  ore  is 
termed  "self  fluxing"  and  in  burdening  a  furnace  ex- 
clusively with  hard  ore  of  this  type  it  is  not  necessary  to 
add  limestone  to  flux  the  ore.  When  the  burden  is  com- 
posed of  hard  and  soft  ore,  or  of  hard  and  brown,  or  of 
hard,  soft,  and  brown  the  amount  of  limestone  to  be  added 
is  calculated  from  the  silica  of  the  ore  other  than  hard,  the 
silica  of  the  fuel  and  of  the  stone  itself.  The  increase  in 
the  use  of  hard  ore  would  tend  to  diminish  the  consump- 
tion of  limestone  by  an  amount  represented  by  the  lime- 
stone in  the  ore  and  if  a  strictly  self-fluxing  ore  were  used 
the  consumption  of  limestone  would  be  greatly  dimin- 
ished. There  is  a  kind  of  hard  ore,  termed  semi-hard, 
which  contains  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  lime  in 
typical  hard  ore,  but  of  this  sort  very. little  is  used,  and 
it  is  not  mined  regularly. 

Within  the  last  three  years  the  use  of  crushed  hard  ore 


52          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

has  become  quite  common  in  the  Birmingham  district^ 
The  soft  ore  does  not  lend  itself  readily  to  crushing  un- 
less thoroughly  dry.  With  the  amount  of  water  it  usu- 
ally contains  it  becomes  somewhat  like  clay  in  the  crush- 
er, i.  e.  more  or  less  gummy,  and  the  machine  soon  be- 
comes choked. 

A  general  average  of  the  hard  ore  used  shows  : 

PER  CENT. 

Water 0.50 

Metallic  Iron . 37.00 

Silica .13.44 

Lime 16.20 

Alumina 3.18 

Phosphorus  . .  . 0  37 

Sulphur 0.07 

Carbonic  acid 12.24 

Adding  the  alumina  and  the  silica  together  we  have 
for  silica  plus  alumina  16.62%,  the  lime  is  16.20%,  and 
the  ore  may  be  termed  self-fluxing.  It  cannot  be  said 
that  all  of  the  hard  ore  used  is  self-fluxing,  <*s  some  of 
it  contains  5%  more  of  lime  than  of  silica  plus  alumina. 
Taking  a  general  average,  however,  of  analyses  of  all 
kinds  of  hard  ore  extending  over  several  years  this  ore 
carries  enough  lime  to  flux  the  silica  plus  alumina.  It 
may  be  urged  that  aluminous  soft  ore  needs  silica  as  a 
flux  for  the  alumina,  and  this  is  indeed  true.  But  we 
have  to  flux  the  silicate  of  alumina  with  lime,  and  it  is 
merely  a  question  as  to  whether  all  the  bases  of  the 
burden  shall  be  calculated  as  lime,  and  all  the  acids  as 
silica,  or  whether  we  shall  regard  the  silica  plus  alumina 
as  requiring  so  much  lime.  In  either  case  the  type  of 
slag  to  be  made  has  to  be  considered,  and  for  any  one 
type  the  two  calculations  lead  to  the  same  result  so  far 
as  concerns  the  consumption  of  limestone  per  ton  of 
iron. 


IRON  MAKING  IN  ALABAMA  ;  THE  HEMATITES.  53 

The  question  has  been  raised  as  to  whether  the  hard 
•ore,  on  the  dip,  may  not  gradually  lose  its  content  of 
iron  and  become  <a  more  and  more  ferruginous  limestone 
until  finally  the  iron  will  not  exceed  20  or  25%.  The 
matter  is  one  of  scientific  rather  than  practical  moment, 
•  and  some  information  has  been  collected.  Taking  the 
iron  in  the  soft  ore  at  47%  at  the  outcrop,  and  in  the 
hard  ore  at  37%  100  feet  on  the  dip  the  rate  of  decrease 
for  the  iron  would  be  one  per  cent,  per  hundred  feet. 
This  rate  seems  to  be  maintained  at  some  localities,  but 
;a,t  others  it  varies  so  that  no  rule  can  be  given.  This 
^comparison  is  between  the  soft  and  the  hard  ore.  When 
the  hard  ore  begins  it  maintains  a  fairly  uniform  compo- 
sition on  planes  extending  in  the  direction  of  the  dip. 

As  to  the  minimum  amount  of  iron  that  a  hard  ore 
•can  carry  and  still  be  considered  an  ore,  opinions  may 
-differ.  But  if  the  iron  in  the  hard  ore  should  fall  to 
"25%,  the  lime  increasing  in  the  same  proportion,  it  is 
not  likely  that  it  could  be  used.  The  silica  and  alumina 
appear  to  remain  somewhat  stationary,  so  that  the  ques- 
tion would  be  whether  or  no  material  carrying  25%  of 
iron,  from  16  to  20%  of  silica,  and  from  24  to  28%  of 
lime  can  be  profitably  used.  It  will  be  many  years, 
however,  before  this  question  will  arise,  and  it  is  not 
necessary  to  discuss  it  now.  It  is  bound  up  with  geo- 
logical and  topographical  considerations  which  are  still 
in  abeyance. 

The  beneficiation  of  the  limy  ore  by  calcining  it  is 
discussed  in  the  chapter  on  Concentration  of  Ores. 


54  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


THE  LIMONITE,  OR,  SO-CALLED  BROWN  ORES. 

As  a  rule  these  ores  constitute  the  best  material  for 
iron  making  in  the  State.  Practically  all  of  the  charcoal 
iron  is  produced  from  this  class  of  ore,  and  although 
there  has  been  of  late  years  a  marked  decrease  in  the 
output  of  charcoal  iron,  following  a  general  tendency 
throughout  the  country  at  large,  the  total  amount  made 
from  1872  to  the  close  of  1897,  was  1,000,000  tons. 

The  yearly  amount  of  brown  ore  mined  is  about  26 
per  cent,  of  the  total  production  of  all  kinds  of  ore. 

The  deposits  do  not  occur  in  regular  seams,  except  as 
the  gossan  of  underlying  pyritiferous  veins  which  furnish 
very  little  of  the  ore  used,  but  as  pockets  in  the  clay. 
These  pockets  are  of  greater  or  less  extent,  sometimes 
going  down  to  75  or  100  feet,  or  even  deeper. 

They  do  not  appear  to  follow  any  known  rule  of  occur- 
rence, and  each  deposit  has  to  be  judged  by  itself  alone. 
It  is  a  common  saying  that  no  one  knows  much  about  a 
brown  ore  bank  beyond  the  length  of  his  pick.  To-day 
one  may  be  in  good  ore,  to  morrow  there  may  be  none 
in  sight,  and  to  know  which  way  to  turn  one  must  know 
the  particular  deposit  he  is  mining, 

The  ore  is  of  two  kinds,  lump  and  gravel.  There  is 
no  rule  as  to  the  proportion  in  which  each  may  be  pres- 
ent, even  in  the  same  'bank/  The  lump  ore  is  generally 
better  than  the  ordinary  gravel  ore  unless  this  latter  is 
carefully  washed  from  adhering  clay.  And  yet  it  often 
happens  that  the  presence  of  chert,  or  sandy  inclusions, 
in  the  lump  ore,  as  also  the  clay-filling  of  the  interstices 
and  small  holes,  makes  the  lump  ore  objectionable.  The 
lumps  vary  in  size  from  that  of  the  fist  to  large  masses 
of  several  tons  weight. 


THE  LIMONITE,  OR  SO-CALLED  BROWN  ORES.  55 

The  large  lumps  are  broken  by  hand,  if  of  unusual 
size  by  means  of  small  charges  of  dynamite,  and  loaded 
on  the  car  without  further  treatment.  By  far  the  greater 
amount  of  brown  ore  is  comprised  within  the  sizes  of  a 
pigeon's  egg  and  a  goose  egg. 

Excluding  the  large  lumps,  the  method  of  mining  is 
briefly  as  follows  :  The  bank  is  cut  away  in  benches, 
the  entire  mass  being  taken  down  either  by  hand,  or 
steam-shovel.  The  stuff  is  loaded  on  trams  and  con- 
veyed to  ordinary  log- washers,  single  or  double  as  the 
case  may  be,  where  it  is  subjected  to  thorough  disinte- 
gration and  stirring  in  large  excess  of  running  water. 
The  clay,  &c.,  is  removed  by  suspension  in  water,  and 
is  run  into  settling  dams  for  the  recovery  of  the  water. 
The  heavier  panicles  of  sand  are  screened  out  over  -§-  inch 
screens  revolving  in  a  mild  current  of  water,  and  the 
washed  ore  delivered  over  the  screens  into  the  railroad 
cars,  and  sent  to  the  furnaces.  Where  the  clay  holding 
the  gravel  is  friable  and  does  not  'ball'  under  the  action 
of  the  washer,  and  where  abundance  of  water  can  be  se- 
cured, this  method  of  preparing  brown  ore  is  fairly  suc- 
cessful There  is  great  variation  in  the  character  of  the 
clay,  some  of  it  being  easily  disintegrated  and  therefore 
yielding  its  ore  readily,  and  some  of  it  being  extremely 
tenacious  and  putty-like.  In  this  case  there  may  be 
serious  loss  of  the  finer  ore  particles,  the  balls  of  clay 
picking  them  up,  enwrapping  them,  and  finally  carrying 
them  to  the  waste  dump. 

It  is  customary  at  some  establishments  to  remove  the 
clay  balls  by  hand,  boys  being  employed  for  the  purpose. 
Jigging  is  resorted  to  but  rarely,  the  results  not  war- 
ranting the  additional  expense. 

A  method  of  washing  that  has' given  good  satisfaction 
is  to  discharge  the  trams  from  the  'bank'  into  a  head- box 
in  which  play  two  powerful  streams  of  water.  The 


56  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

lower  end  of  the  box,  which  is  of  triangular  shape  and 
inclined  about  30  degrees,  opens  into  a  long  wooden 
trough  lined  with  castings  of  iron  fitted  snugly  at  the 
bottom.  This  trough  in  turn  discharges  into  the  washer 
at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 

The  advantages  claimed  are  contact  of  the  material 
with  water  under  pressure,  and  the  better  separation  of 
ore  and  clay  from  the  tumbling  motion  down  the  trough. 
Even  the  tenacious  clays  may,  in  this  'manner,  be  made 
to  yield  their  ore.  But  if  the  clay  be  extremely  tena- 
cious, as  is  sometimes  the  case,  even  this  mode  of  treat- 
ment fails  to  disintegrate  it.  In  fact  it  rather  tends  to 
increase  the  'balling'  by  carrying  the  material  down  an 
incline.  The  friable  and  easily  disintegrated  clays,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  speedily  removed  in  this  process, 
and  the  washer  is  called  upon  merely  to  complete  what 
has  been  already  pretty  well  done.  No  washing  system 
can  succeed  without  plenty  of  water,  and  unsparing  use 
of  it.  If  the  best  results  are  to  be  reached  there  must 
be  no  half-handed  and  mistaken  economy  in  the  consump- 
tion of  water,  and  as  a  large  part  of  the  water  used  is 
recovered  in  settling  dams  the  loss  of  water  is  chargeable 
mostly  to  evaporation  and  seepage.  The  first  can  not 
be  prevented,  but  seepage  can  be  controlled  by  properly 
constructed  dams. 

Thf  amount  of  material  moved  per  ton  of  ore  obtained 
varies  within  wide  limits.  It  may  be  1  :1,  4  :1,  or  10  :1. 
Even  the  same  bank  shows  very  considerable  differences 
in  this  respect,  so  that  no  rule  can  be  given.  It  is  a 
matter  that  can  not  be  determined  before  hand,  and  is 
liable  to  change  from  day  to  day.  Variations  in  the 
composition  of  the  ore  from  the  same  bank,  while  ob- 
servable, do  not,  as  a  rule,  offer  serious  obstacles  to  suc- 
cessful mining.  A  given  bank  is  apt  to  afford  ore  of  the 
same  general  composition,  and  variations  in  the  compo- 


THE  LTMONITE,  OR  SO-CALLED  BROWN  ORES.  57 

sition  of  stock-house  samples  are  to  be  explained  by  in- 
sufficient treatment  in  the  washer,  due  to  lack  of  water 
or  changes  in  the  nature  of  the  clay. 

Brown  ore  mining  is  attractive  because  of  the  higher 
price  paid  for  good  brown  ore,  but  should  be  entered 
upon  only  after  the  most  thorough  examination  of  all 
local  conditions. 

The  average  composition  of  the  brown  ore  of  the  State, 
.stock-house  delivery,  is  as  follows  : 

DRY    BASIS. 

Metallic  Iron 51.00 

.Silica 9.00 

Alumina 3 .75 

Lime 0.75 

Phosphorus 0.40 

Sulphur 0.10 

The  amount  of  water  it  contains  varies  according  to 
circumstances.  Thus,  if  the  washer  be  placed  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  furnace  the  water,  not  having  had 
time  to  drain  out.  is  more  than  if  the  haul  were  longer 
So  also  if  the  ore  be  not  properly  washed  the  clay  retnins 
water.  Under  a  haul  of  25  to  50  miles  the  ore,  sampled 
from  the  cars  in  the  stock-house,  contains  on  the  average 
1  %  of  hygroscopic  water.  Following  is  an  average 
analysis  of  a  good  quality  of  brown  ore  : 

Hygroscopic  water 7.00 

Combined  water 6.00 

Metallic  Iron 48.54 

Silica 11.22 

Alumina 3 .61 

Lime 0.84 

Phosphorus 0  38 

Sulphur 0.09 


58  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Selected  brown  ore  may  carry  as  much  as  56%  of  iron, 
on.  a  dry  basis,  and  at  one  establishment  the  ordinary 
ore  as  charged  carries  53  %,  after  washing  and  calcining. 
The  sale  of  brown  ore  on  analysis  has  become  the  cus- 
tom in  the  Birmingham  district  for  outside  ores.  The 
basis  of  sale-is  50%  of  Iron,  and  10%  of  insoluble  mat- 
ter, or  silic  ,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  price  per  ton  is 
started,  let  us  say,  at  $1.0J,  for  ore  carrying  50%  of 
iron,  and  10%  of  insoluble  matter.  T?ien  for  ea^h  one 
per  cent,  above  50%  5  cents  per  ton  is  added  to  the  price. 
If  the  insoluble  matter  it  the  sarm  time  decrease  1%. 
being  9%  instead  of  10%  ,  2j  cents  per  ton  additional  is 
added.  An  ore  carrying  51  %  of  iron  and  9%  of  insolu- 
ble matter  would  be  worth  $1.075  per  ton,  and  so  on. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  the  percentage  of  metallic  iron 
should  fall  to  49%,  5  cents  per  ton  would  be  taken  offr 
and  if  at  the  same  time  the  insoluble  matter  should  rise 
to  11%,  2-J-  cents  per  ton  more  would  be  subtracted. 
Thus  an  ore  carrying  49%  of  iron  and  11  %  of  insoluble 
matter  would  be  worth  $0.925  per  ton.  The  starting 
price  is  not  always  the  same.  Ft  may  be  $1.00,  $1  05, 
$1.10  &c.,  according  to  circumstances,  but  the  valuation 
of  5  cents  per  unit  of  iron,  and  2J  cents  per  unit  of  in- 
soluble matter  is  generally  adopted.  In  this  scherm  no 
account  is  taken  of  hygroscopic  or  combined  water,  or  of 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  or  alumina. 

The  basis  of  valuation  is  the  amount  of  metallic  iron 
and  insoluble  matter.  The  ore  may  contain  5  % ,  or  10  % 
of  ordinary  water,  yet  no  account  is  taken  of  it.  It 
would  be  much  better  if  a  deduction  could  be  made  for 
all  water  above  a  certain  percentage,  although  the  con- 
dition of  the  weather,  as  in  the  case  of  heavy  rains  while 
the  ore  was  in  transit,  might  prevent  satisfactory  agree- 
ments. 

The  water  a  brown  ore  may  contain  is  a  small  matter 


THE  LIMONITES,  OR  SO-CALLED  BROWN  ORES.  59 

compared  with  the  clay  it  may,  and  too  often  does,  con- 
tain. The  ordinary  water  is  easily  enough  evaporated 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  furnace,  but  the  clay  requires 
flux  and  stone  for  its  removal. 

Well  washed  ore,  free  from  clay,  seldom  holds  more 
than  4  %  of  water,  and  the  increase  in  the  amount  of 
water  follows  closely  upon  the  increase  in  the  amount 
of  clay. 

There  is  a  circumstance  in  connection  with  brown  ore 
that  merits  attention,  not  only  because  of  its  contradis- 
tinction to  the  soft  red  ore  but  also  and  particularly  be- 
cause of  its  bearing  upon  its  improvement,  whether  by 
simple  screening  or  by  some  magnetic  process.  It  has 
been  stated  that  even  the  lower  grades  of  soft  ore  on 
being  dried  and  crushed  yield  more  metallic  iron  in  the 
material  passing  a  50  mesh  screen  than  in  the  coarser 
stuff.  In  such  ores  there  is  a  marked  increase  in  the 
iron  the  finer  the  screen  up  to  and  including  a  50 "mesh. 

This  is  not  true  of  the  brown  ore.  The  finer  the  screen, 
up  to  and  including  a  50  mesh,  the  poorer  in  iron  is  the 
material  passing  through. 

Not  only  have  laboratory  experiments  shown  this  but 
actual  work  on  a  large  scale  has  substantiated  the  gen- 
eral truth  of  the  proposition  that  on  crushing  brown  ore, 
whether  by  machines  or  by  the  attrition  of  ore  on  ore 
in  a  kiln  the  fine  stuff  carries  less  iron  than  the  coarse 
stuff.  Attention  is  drawn  to  this  matter  because  of  the 
custom  at  some  kilns  to  draw  the  ore  over  screens  into 
the  furnace-buggies.  There  is  considerable  loss  of  ma- 
terial in  this  practice,  and  it  is  not  to  be  recommended 
unless  the  ore  carries  an  unusual  amount  of  clay,  which, 
of  course,  is  removed  over  the  screens.  It  may  happen 
that  as  much  as  10  per  cent,  by  weight  is  lost,  even  over 
a  i  inch  screen.  Some  experiments  were  undertaken  to 


60          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

establish  the  actual  loss,  and  how  much  iron  was  present 
in  the  various  sizes  of  ore  from  a  kiln. 

Several  hundred  pounds  were  taken,  the  samples  be- 
ing drawn  over  several  days  and  put  together,  so  as  to 
represent  the  ore  fairly.  The  results  of  the  investigation 
were  as  follows  : 

•   Iron  Silica. 

Raw  ore 44.63 13.82 

Calcined  ore 50.20 15.10 

Calcined  ore — 

On  i  inch  screen  (68  per  ct.) 52.95 10.25 

Through  i  inch  screen  (32  per  ct.) .  .  .49.30 15.90 

On  -g-  inch  screen  (77  per  ct.)  . .  .  .52.75 11.05 

Through  i  inch  screen  (23  per  ct.)  ..  .42.85 21.80 

It  can  not,  of  course,  be  sai  I  that  all  brown  ores  act 
in  this  way,  but  the  ore  under  examination  fairly  repre- 
sented the  second  grade  brown,  and  it  is  likely  that 
other  ores  of  the  same  class  would  give  results  compara- 
ble to  these. 

Screening  over  a  i  inch  screen  gave  68  per  cent,  on 
the  screen,  with,  say,  53  per  cent  of  iron,  and  32  per 
cent,  through  the  screen  with  49.50  per  cent,  of  iron. 
Screening  over  a  i  inch  screen  gave  77  per  cent,  on  the 
screen  with  52.75  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  23  per  cent, 
through  the  screen  with  42.85  per  cent,  of  iron.  Screen- 
ing can  not  be  recommended,  except  for  clayey  ore,  and 
the  clay  should  be  removed  in  the  washer.  There  is 
practically  but  little  difference  between  the  'overs'  on  a 
i  inch  and  i  inch  screen  in  respect  of  iron,  while  there 
is  a  difference  of  9  per  cent,  in  weight  in  favor  of  the 
coarser  screen.  The  loss  of  ore  through  either  screen  is 
too  large  for  profitable  work,  except  under  unusual  cir- 
cumstances requiring  the  use  of  the  best  ore  obtainable. 


MILL  CINDER. 

Another  material  used  in  the  Birmingham  district,  as 
a  source  of  iron,  is  mill  cinder. 

It  is  a  product  from  puddling  furnaces,  and  is  worth 
from  90  cents  to  $1.00  a  ton,  delivered. 

The  composition  varies  somewhat,  as  the  following 
analyses  show  : 

Equal  parts,  by  weight,  of  heating  furnace  and  puddle 
cinder  ;  metallic  iron,  56.59  per  cent. 

Equal  parts,  by  weight,  of  cinder  made  with  coal,  cin- 
der made  with  gas,  and  puddle  cinder ;  metallic  iron 
51.33  per  cent. 

Equal  parts,  by  weight,  of  flue  and  tap  cinder  ;  me- 
tallic iron,  50.08  per  cent. 

The  average  composition  of  ordinary  mill  cinder  is 
about  as  follows  : 

Per  cent. 

Metallic  iron 50.00 

Silica 20.00 

Alumina 1.50 

Lime 0.50 

Sulphur 1.50 

Phosphorus 0.60 

It  is  not  used  regularly,  but  in  broken  doses,  as  a 
"scouring"  material. 

BLUE  BILLY,  PURPLE  ORE. 

Residue  from  pyrite  burners  in  sulphuric  acid  works. 
This  material  has  been  used  in  Alabama,  having  been 
purchased  from  the  sulphuric  acid  factories  in  Atlanta, 
Pensacola,  &c.  It  generally  carries  more  than  60%  of 
iron,  but  the  content  of  sulphur  is  quite  variable,  and 
may  be  as  much  as  2.50^. 


62  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE   FLUXES. 

The  material  used  for  flux  in  the  State  is  either  lime- 
stone, dolomite,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two  in  varying  pro- 
portions. It  is  now  very  largely  sold  on  analysis,  sam- 
ples being  drawn  from  each  car  received.  The  basis  of 
sale  is  the  percentage  of  silica,  some  of  the  contracts 
starting  at  2.50  per  cent,  and  others  at  3.50  per  cent. 
When  the  stone  is  sold  on  analysis  it  is  customary  to 
employ  a  sliding  scale,  as  has  already  been  explained 
under  the  brown  ore.  Suppose  the  base  is  3.50  percent, 
of  silica.  The  scale  is  so  arranged  that  for  each  quarter 
of  one  per  cent,  above  3.50  per  cent.,  two-tenths  of  a 
cent  per  ton  is  taken  off,  and  for  quarter  of  one  per  cent, 
below  3.50  per  cent,  of  silica  two-tenths  of  a  cent  is 
added.  Thus  if  the  delivery  price  be  60  cents  per  ton 
for  a  3.50  per  cent,  stone,  and  the  silica  should  run  to 
3.75  per  cent.,  the  price  would  be  5;J.S  cents  per  ton, 
and  if  the  silica  should  fall  to  3.25  per  cent  ,  the  price 
would  be  GO. 2  cents  per  ton.  If  the  silica  should  rise  to 
5  per  cent,  the  price  per  ton  would  be  68.8  cents,  and  if 
it  should  fall  to  2.00  per  cent,  the  price  would  be  61 
cents. 

The  average  analysis  of  the  limestone  used  in  the 
state  may  be  stated  as  follows  : 

Silica 4.00% 

Oxide  of  iron  and  alumina  1.00 

Carbonate  of  lime 94.60         Lime  53.00% 

It  not  infrequently  happens  that  the  stone  is  much 
higher  in  silica  than  this  average.  Instances  are  on 


THE  FLUXES.  63 

record  in  which  the  silica  was  8.00  per  cent.  In  such 
cases  the  production  of  iron  is  attended  with  consider- 
ably higher  cost  than  when  the  better  stone  is  used. 

Considerable  shipments  of  limestone  from  Bangor 
have  been  made  in  which  the  silica  was  less  than  0.60 
per  cent. 

Until  the  last  few  years  limestone  was  the  only  flux 
used.  During  the  last  two  years  the  use  of  dolomite  has 
largely  increased.  In  the  manufacture  of  basic  iron  in- 
tended for  the  open  hearth  steel  furnace  it  was  soon 
found  that  the  use  of  dolomite  was  a  decided  advantage, 
especially  in  the  elimination  of  sulphur.  Whether  this 
result  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  dolomite  carried  only 
1.25-1.50  per  cent,  of  silica  as  against  4.00  for  the  lime- 
stone, or  whether  the  presence  of  magnesia  was  of  real 
benefit,  so  far  as  concerns  the  elimination  of  the  sulphur, 
is  still  in  dispute.  The  fact,  however,  remains  that  in 
the  production  of  basic  iron,  sold  on  analysis  under  se- 
vere restrictions  as  to  quality,  only  dolomite  is  used. 
Aside  from  its  low  silica  content,  the  dolomite  possesses 
the  further  advantage  of  great  uniformity  of  composi- 
tion. This  is  a  point  very  much  in  its  favor.  My  own 
experience  with  limestone  in  this  state  covers  something 
like  22,000  cars,  and  with  dolomite  about  5, 000  cars. 
The  former  is  subject  to  considerable  variation  in  respect 
to  silica,  while  the  latter,  in  so  far  at  least  as  concerns 
the  lump  stone,  is  of  remarkable  uniformity.  The  high- 
est amount  of  silica  observed  in  the  lump  dolomite  is  a 
trifle  over  1 .50  per  cent. ,  the  ordinary  range  being  from 
0.75  to  1.25  per  cent. 

Extensive  deposits  of  both  limestone  and  dolomite 
exist  within  eight  miles  of  Birmingham.  The  haul  for 
limestone  is,  however,  about  thirty  miles,  only  the  dolo- 
mite being  worked  within  the  immediate  vicinity.  So 


64         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

far  as  my  observation  goes,  the   average  composition  of" 
the  dolomite  used  may  be  taken  as  follows : 

Dolcito  Dolomite 

Silica 1.50%-2.00% 

Oxide  of  iron  and  alumina  1.00  % 

Carbonate  of  lime 54.00%   Lime  30.31% 

Carbonate  of  magnesia.  .43.00%   Magnesia  20.71% 

The  dolomite  mined  by  the  Sloss  Iron  and  Steel  Com- 
pany at  North  Birmingham  seldom  carries  as  much  as 
0.40  percent,  of  silica. 

The  proportion  between  the  magnesia  and  the  lime 
does  not  vary  much  from  1 :1.50. 

Both  the  limestone  and  the  dolomite  carry  small 
amounts  of  sulphur,  the  maximum  so  far  observed  be- 
ing 0.11  per  cent. 

As  in  the  limestone  quarries  there  are  layers  of  silic- 
eous material  interfering  with  the  quality  of  the  mate- 
rial, so  in  the  dolomite  quarries  there  are  ledges  of 
almost  pure  silicia,  white  as  porcelain.  They  seem  to  be 
flinty  concretions  occurring  in  more  or  less  regular 
bands,  from  one-half  an  inch  to  three  inches  in  thick- 
ness. It  is  customary  to  separate  these  flinty  nodules 
from  the  stone  by  hand  before  it  is  shipped.  They  do 
not  seriously  interfere  with  the  quality  of  the  dolomite 
if  care  is  used  in  the  separation.  Otherwise  they  are 
extremely  objectionable. 

The  impure  limestone  is  of  a  much  darker  color  than 
the  good  stone,  but  the  impure  dolomite  is  generally 
much  lighter  in  color  than  the  remaining  portion .  There 
is  a  kind  of  dolomite  that  occurs  in  some  of  the  quarries 
that  is  very  deceptive  to  the  eye.  It  looks  not  unlike 
coarse  brown  sugar,  has  the  same  damp  appearance  and 
glistens  in  the  sunlight.  To  the  hand  it  feels  sandy,  but 
on  analysis  it  is  found  generally  to  be  the  best  stone  in 
the  quarry.  Some  samples  have  given  only-  0.25  per 


THE  FLUXES;  65 

cent,  of  silica.  Not  all  of  this  loose,  sandy  looking  dolo- 
mite is  good,  however,  for  it  sometimes  happens  that  it 
carries  more  than  3.00  per  cent,  of  silica,  and  one  sam- 
ple was  found  to  contain  nearly  4.00  per  cent.  It  does 
not  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  material  in  the  quarry  r 
and  is  mined  and  shipped  with  the  other  stone. 

Both  the  limestone  and  the  dolomite  are  quarried  on 
the  face,  no  underground  work  being  required.  Crushed 
stone  or  lump  is  shipped  as  occasion  may  demand. 

The  amount  of  stone  used  per  ton  of  iron  varies,  of 
course,  with  the  quality  of  the  stone,  with  the  nature  of 
the  ore  and  fuel,  and,  to  some  extent,  with  the  grade  of 
the  iron  required.  The  range  is  from  0.30  to  0;80. 
This  subject  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  Furnace 
Burdens,  which  will  be  devoted  to  the  general  practice 
throughout  the  State,  different  types  of  burdens  being 
selected  with  reference  to  the  consumption  of  raw  mate- 
rials per  ton  of  iron  and  the  cost  of  the  same. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  on  any  considerable  scale 
to  use  calcined  stone,  whether  limestone  or  dolomite,, 
except  in  so  far  as  the  calcination  of  hard  ore  ma/  be 
considered  as  an  attempt  to  calcine  the  carbonate  ^f- lime- 
contained  in  it. 

It  is  necessary  here  merely  to  state  the  question  in 
general  terms.  As  has  been  already  remarked,  in  the 
discussion  of  the  hard  ore,  we  have  in  this  State  an  inti- 
mate mixture  of  oxide  of  iron,  silica,  and  carbonate  of 
lime.  The  best  of  it  contains  on  the  average  37  per 
cent,  of  iron,  13.44  per  cent,  of  silica,  and  15.45  per 
cent,  of  lime.  The  admixture  of  these  materials  is  far 
more  perfect  than  could  be  attained  by  any  practical 
mechanical  means,  although  some  of  the  ore  is  not  self- 
fluxing.  This  being  the  case  we  can  ask  ourselves  if  it 
is  more  economical  to  employ  this  ore,  in  which  the  flux: 
is  already  so  well  mixed  with  the  silica,  than  to  use  an. 
5 


66        >  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

ore  of  far  less  content  of  lime  and  therefore  requiring 
the  addition  of  flux.  At  the  first  glance  it  would  appear 
that  it  is  better  to  avail  ones  self  of  whatever  advan- 
tages Nature  herself  has  conferred  upon  us  in  the  way 
of  an  ore  carrying  its  own  lime.  But  the  matter  can 
not  be  settled  out  of  hand  and  without  careful  investiga- 
tion of  all  the  data  bearing  upon  it.  From  the  stand- 
point of  the  furnace  man,  if  he  could  depend  on  secur- 
ing self-fluxing  ore  regularly,  the  matter  resolves  itself 
into  the  simple  consideration  as  to  whether  he  can  make 
as  much  iron  and  as  cheap  iron  in  the  one  way  as  in  the 
other.  He  may,  indeed,  go  a  step  farther  and  ask  if  he 
make  iron  more  cheaply  in  the  one  way  than  in  the 
other.  Having  settled  this,  he  has  no  further  concern 
with  the  matter.  If  he  can  make  iron  more  cheaply  by 
iising  a  greater  and  greater  proportion  of  hard  ore  than 
oy  using  an  ore  which  requires  the  addition  of  extrane- 
ous flux,  it  is  his  duty  to  do  it.  This,  however,  is  a  one- 
sided view.  There  are  other  investments  in  the  State 
that  must  be  regarded  as  well  as  investments  in  furnaces. 
How  is  it  with  the  contractor  for  ore  and  flux?  Would 
Ms  business  be  hindered  by  the  substitution  of  hard  ore 
for  stone?  Tf  his  profit  on  the  ore  were  the  same  as  his 
profit  on  the  stone,  no  great  hardship  would  follow  the 
increase  in  the  use  of  the  one  and  the  decrease  in  the 
-use  of  the  other.  But  if  it  should  happen  that  his  profit 
in  mining  stone  were  greater  than  his  profit  in  mining 
liard  ore,  and  there  should  be  such  an  increase  in  the 
consumption  of  hard  or3  as  to  destroy  the  value  of  his 
stone  quarry,  he  would  not  be  apt  to  appreciate  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  change.  In  this  respect  this  iron  dis- 
trict differs  from  any  other  in  the  country,  and  the  rela- 
tions of  stone  to  ore  burden  vary  perhaps  more  widely 
than  elsewhere.  The  ability  of  the  furnaces  to  dimin- 
ish at  will  the  consumption  of  limestone,  places  them  in 


THE  FLUXES. 

a  very  independent  position.  If  the  price  of  stone  be 
too  high,  they  can  run  on  increased  proportions  of  hard 
ore.  If  they  succeed  in  obtaining  the  stone  at  reasona- 
ble cost,  they  take  off  hard  ore  and  put  on  soft  or  brown. 
For  instance,  a  certain  coke  furnace  during  a  certain 
month  in  1895  made  about  5,000  tons  of  iron  with  an 
ore  burden  composed  of  50.9  per  cent,  hard,  and  49.1 
per  cent,  soft  ore.  The  total  burden  was  as  follows : 

Hard  ore 27.7  per  cent. 

Soft  ore 26.7 

Limestone 15.5       " 

Coke 30.1 

100.00       " 

The  consumption  per  ton  of  iron  was  : 

Ore 2.36  tons  (2240  Ibs.) 

Stone : 0.67    " 

Coke 1.32    « 

4.54 

And  the  cost  per  ton  of  iron  was,  for  raw  materials  : 

Ore $1.32 

Stone 0.34 

Coke 1.83 

$3.49 

The  consumption  of  coke  per  pound  of  iron  made  was 
1.32  Ibs.,  and  practically  all  of  the  iron  was  of  foundry 
grades. 

Shortly  before,  the  same  furnace  was  running  on  33.4 
per  cent,  hard,  65.3  per  cent,  soft,  and  1.3  per  cent, 
brown  ore.  The  total  burden  was  : 


68  GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY  of  ALABAMA. 

Hard  ore 17.0  per  cent- 

Soft  ore 33.1       '• 

Brown  ore 0.6        " 

Limestone.. 16.9       " 

Coke 32.4       '< 

100.00 

The  consumption  per  ton  of  iron,  of  which  something" 
over  4,600  tons  were  made,  was,  in  tons  of  2,240  Ibs. : 

Ore 2.20 

Limestone .0.73 

Coke 1.41 

4.34 

The  cost  per  ton  of  iron  was,  for  raw  materials  : 

Ore $1.26 

Stone 0.43 

Coke...  .  .'. 1.83 

$3.52 

The  consumption  of  coke  per  pound  of  iron  was  1.41 
Ibs.,  and  in  this  case  also  practically  all  of  the  iron  made 
was  of  foundry  grades.  In  these  two  cases  there  was  a 
saving  of  nine  cents  per  ton  of  iron  by  increasing  the 
proportion  of  hard  ore  and  lessening  the  amount  of 
limestone  added.  The  ore  cost  six  cents  a  ton  of  iron 
more  than  when  the  ^larger  proportion  of  soft  ore  was 
used,  so  that  the  net  gain  was  three  cents  per  ton  of  iron,. 
$3.49  for  the  hard  ore  burden, ^and  $3.52  for  the  other. 

But  with  the  lesser  amount  of  hard  ore  the  furnace 
made  358  tons  of  iron  more  than  with  the  greater 
amount.  This  has  to  be  set  to  the  credit  of  the  soft  ore 
burden. 

Perhaps  no  positive  conclusions  can  be   drawn  from 


THE  FLUXES.  69 

one  or  two  instances,  and  as  the  whole  matter  will  be 
fully  discussed  under  Furnace  Burdens,  it  may  be  best 
to  defer  any  further  remarks. 

Enough,  however,  has  been  said  in  this  chapter  on 
the  fluxes  to  direct  attention  to  the  importance  of  the 
•considerations  advanced.  The  future  of  the  iron  industry 
in  the  State  depends  not  on  any  one  circumstance  or  con- 
dition, howsoever  vital  it  may  seem,  but  upon  the  result- 
ant of  a  number  of  forces,  some  of  whose  effects  may  be 
.at  the  present  but  dimly  foreseen.  It  is  possible  that 
the  relation  between  hard  ore  and  limestone,  or  dolomite, 
is  one  of  these. 

Mr.  C.  A.  Meissner  w-is  the  first  furnace  manager  in 
the  Birmingham  district  to  make  use  of  dolomite  regu- 
larly and  systematically.  While  manager  of  the  Van- 
derbilt  furnace  he  began  to  prospect  for  workable  de- 
posits of  dolomite,  and  succeeded  in  locating  and  opening 
the  quarries  now  belonging  to  the  Jefferson  Mining  & 
Quarrying  Co.,  about  2  miles  from  North  Birmingham. 
This  was  the  first  quarry  of  dolomite  opened  and  the 
iirst  shipment-  were  made  in  1890  to  the  Sloss  Iron  and 
Steel  Company. 

This  quarry  is  still  in  active  operation,  and  yields  ex- 
cellent; stone.  All  of  the  output  is  taken  by  the  Sloss 
Iron  &  Steel  Company. 

Following  the  successful  operation  of  this  quarry  J. 
W.  Worthington  &  Co.  opened  the  Dolcito  dolomite 
quarry  along  the  same  deposit  towards  the  North-east. 
The  Dolcito  quarry  was  opened  in  July  1895,  the  first 
shipments  being  made  about  August  1st.  to  the  Tennessee 
Coal ,  Iron  &  Railroad  Co.  This  quarry  furnished  425,000 
tons  of  stone  to  the  close  of  1897.  and  has  a  fine  equip- 
ment, power  drills,  wire-rope  transmission  Irom  the  face 
to  the  crusher^&c.  It  has  a  daily  capacity  of  500  tons 
of  crushed  stone  and  500  tons  of  lump  stone.  The  aver- 


70          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

age  analysis  of  the  Dolcito  dolomite  has  already  been 
given. 

From  its  North  Birmingham  quarry  the  Sloss  Iron  & 
Steel  Company  is  now  obtaining  dolomite  that  averages 
less  than  0.50%  of  silica. 

After  Mr.  Meissner  had  shown  that  good  dolomite 
could  be  obtained  within  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
Birmingham  and  in  almost  any  quantity.  Mr.  E. 
A.  Uehling,  manager  of  the  Sloss  Iron  &  Steel 
Company,  took  the  matter  up.  In  an  article  written  for 
the  Alabama  Industrial  &  Scientific  Society  (see  Proc. 
Vol.  iv,  1894,  p.  24)  Mr.  Uehling  described  at  some 
length  the  nature  of  this  stone,  and  compared  its  value 
with  that  of  the  ordinary  limestone  of  the  district. 

This  paper  was  published  in  full  in  the  first  edition,, 
ana  from  it  is  taken  the  following  : 

"In  determining  the  value  of  a  stone  as  a  flux,  it  is 
not  only  necessary  to  deduct  the  impurities  it  contains r 
but  in  addition  to  that,  as  much  of  the  base  as  is  neces- 
sary to  flux  these  impurities.  What  remains  only  can 
be  considered  as  available  flux,  and  has  value  id  the 
blast  furnace.  To  get  at  the  available  flux,  we  must  de- 
duct 2  per  cent,  from  the  carbonate  of  lime  for  each  unit 
per  cent,  impurity  in  the  stone.  Taking  the  limestone 
at  96  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  deducting  from 
this  8  per  cent,  to  take  care  of  its  own  impurities,  we 
have  left  for  available  flux  88  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of 
lime. 

"As  the  average  dolomite  contains  only  2  per  cent,  of 
impurities  and  43  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  magnesia 
with  55  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime,  we  will  have, 
after  deducting  4  per  cent,  from  the  carbonate  of  lime,. 
51  per  cent,  of  this  material,  and  43  per  cent,  of  carbon- 
ate of  magnesia. 


THE  FLUXES.  '         71 

Reducing  the  carbonate  of  magnesia  to  its  equivalent 
in  fluxing  power  of  carbonate  of  lime,  we  have,  because, 
the  fluxing  powers  of  the  two  carbonates  are  to  each 
other  as  84  to  100, 

43x100 

x51=102.19. 

84 

The  relatiue  values  of  the  two  available  fluxing  ma- 
terials of  the  district  are,  therefore,  to  each  other  as  88 
is  to  102.19.  That  means  that  88  tons  of  dolomite  will 
do  as  much  work  in  the  Hast  furnace  as  102.19  tons  of 
limestone.  Put  into  dollars  and  cents,  this  means  that 
if  dolomite  c;m  be  bought  for  69  cents  a  ton,  limestone 
is  worth  only  52  cents  a  ton  ;  or  if  limestone  costs  60 
cents,  dolomite  is  worth  69.5  cents  a  ton. 

There Js  only  one  valid  objection  that  can  be  brought- 
up  against  the  use  of  dolomite  as  a  flux  in  the  blast  fur- 
liases,  and  that  is  that  magnesium  has  less  affinity  for 
sulphur  than  calcium  has,  and  dolomite  is  therefore  less 
efficient  as  :i  d<  sulphurizer  than  limestone,  to  the  extent 
that  caustic  limp  is  displaced  by  magnesia. 

This  objfvt,  however,  becomes  quite  insignificant 
where  thu-  ores  are  free  from  sulphur,  as  is  the  ca-e  in 
the  Birmingham  district.  When  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  hard  ore  is  used  in  the  mixture,  its  lime,  in  con- 
nection with  what  is  contained  in  the  dolomite  itself,  is 
ample  to  take  care  of  the  sulphur  contained  in  the  coke. 

One-quarter  to  one-half  dolomite  has  been  regularly 
used  in  the  Sloss  furnaces  for  nearly  two  years,  and,  at 
intervals,  as  high  as  three-fourths  have  been  put  on  with 
the  best  results.  The  ore  mixture  being  half  hard  and 
half  Irondale  (soft)  at  the  city  furnaces,  and  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  brown  with,  generally,  equal  propor- 


72  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

tions  of  Irondale  (soft)  and  liar d  at  the  North  Binning* 
ham  furnaces. 

The  coke  used  contained  considerably  above  the  aver- 
age amount  of  sulphur  found  in  the  coke  of  the  district. 

The  iron  was  of  as  good  quality  as  could  have  been 
produced  with  all  limestone  as  a  flux,  and  the  furnaces 
have  worked  more  regularly  than  they  did  prior  to  the 
use  of  dolomite.  The  assertion  that  the  use  of  dolomite 
has  a  tendency  to  make  light  colored  iron  is  not  sustain- 
ed by  fact.  Some  of  the  most  celebrated  foundry  irons 
are  made  with  all  dolomite  as  a  flux.-  The  writer  had 
used  it  for  years,  while  in  charge  of  the  blast  furnaces 
of  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Co rnp  my.  prior  to  coming  down 
here,  and  experienced  no  difficulty  in  keeping  the  sul- 
phur within  the  required  limits,  even  with  ores  contain- 
ing as  high  as  1.5  per  cent,  of  that  element. 

The  Illinois  Steel  Co.  are  also  using  dolomite  ex- 
clusively in  their  Joliet  Works.  They  are  doing  very 
good  work,  and  have  no  trouble  with  the  sulphur  what- 
ever. 

The  deficiency  of  dolomite  to  carry  off  sulphur  is 
probably  very  much  exagerated.  There  are  impure 
dolomites  as  well  as  impure  limestones  ;  but  when  of 
good  quality  and  used  intelligently  and  without  preju- 
dice, it  always  gives  good  satisfaction.  In  addition  to 
its  superior  fluxing  power  there  is  decidedly  less  ten- 
dency to  'hanging'  with  dolomite  than  with  carbonate 
of  lime." 

We  can  not  agree  with  Mr.Uehling  that  dolomite  is  a 
less  efficient  desulphurizer  than  limestone.  Experience 
here  with  all  kinds  of  burdens  in  the  manufacture  of 
basic  iron,  in  which  't  was  required  that  the  maximum 
sulphur  should  be  0.050%,  has  shown  the  contrary. 
When  limestone  was  used  exclusively  it  was  with  diffi- 
culty that  the  specifications  as  to  sulphur  were  met,  and 


THE  FLUXES.  73 

the  percentage  of  casts  with  maximum  sulphur  0.050% 
was  very  much  less  than  when  dolomite  was  used  ex- 
clusively. These  conclusions  are  based  on  the  analysis  of 
some  1500  casts.  Speaking  with  reference  to  the  man- 
ufacture of  low-silicon,  low-sulphur  iron  if  any  one 
thing  was  abundantly  proved  it  was  that  limestone 
failed  to  give  any  thing  like  such  good  results  as  dolo- 
mite, not  only  with  respect  to  silicon,  but  also  and  es- 
pecially with  respect  to  sulphur.  This  whole  matter 
was  carefully  worked  over  by  the  writer  in  an  article  on 
•"The  Manufacture  of  Basic  Iron  in  Alabama,"  pub- 
lished in  The  Mineral  Industry,  Vol.  V.  1896. 

It  may  be  regarded  as  practically  settled  that  as  a  de- 
sulphurizer  in  the  blast  furnace  dolomite  is  quite  as 
efficient  as  limestone  for  ordinary  grades  of  iron,  and 
much  more  efficient  for  basic  iron  requiring  unusually 
low-sulphur. 

With  r-espect'to  the  effect  of  dolomite  on  the  silicon  of 
the  silvery  and  the  soft  irons  we  are  not  prepared  to 
make  a  positive  statement  at  this  time.  By  some  the 
low  silicon  that  has  characterized  these  irons  during  the 
last  two  years  has  been  attributed  to  the  prevailing  use 
of  dolomite.  And  yet  some  furnaces  that  do  not  use 
dolomite  at  all  are  troubled  in  the  same  way. 

The  low  silicon  in  the  'hot'  irons  may  be  due  in  part, 
at  least,  to  the  increasing  amount  of  limy  ore  that  is 
'being  used.  A  very  basic  slag  requires  a  very  high  heat 
for  perfect  fusion,  and  it  makes  no  great  difference 
whether  the  lime  is  in  the  ore,  or  is  added  in  the  shape 
of  limestone.  The  more  basic  the  slag  the  greater  the 
heat  required  to  melt  it,  and  the  more  pronounced  the 
tendency  towards  exceeding  the  point  at  which  the  sili- 
con enters  the  iron. 

1  here  is  a  point  at  which  silicon  fails  to  combine  with 
iron  because  the  temperature  is  not  sufficient  for  the  re- 


74  GELOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALARAMA. 

duction  of  silica.  May  there  not  also  be  a  point  at 
which  silicon  fails  to  enter  the  iron  because  ( a)  the  tem- 
peratuie  is  too  high,  or  (b)  the  slag  is  too  basic?  If 
silica  is  deoxidized  the  resulting  metalloid  alloys  with 
iron,  and  in  the  measure  in  which  the  deoxidation  goes 
on  in  the  same  measure  will  high-silicon  irons  be  pro- 
duced. 

Ten  years  ago  when  there  was  less  limy  ore  used  than 
is  the  case  now,  there  was  no  special  difficulty  in  making 
silvery  and  soft  irons.  The  difficulty  was  in  keeping 
the  silicon  down,  for  Mr.  Kenneth  Robertson  informs  us. 
(Trans.  Amer.  Inst.  Min.  Engrs.,  Vol.  XVII,  1888- 
18S9,  P.  94  et  seq.)  that  No.  1  Foundry  iron  carried 
3.6o%  of  silicon,  while  No.  1  Mill,  which  was  also 
called  No.  3  Foundry,  carried  2.tt7%.  Unfortunately 
Mr,  Robertson  does  not  give  the  analysis  of  the  irons 
according  to  the  burden  on  which  they  were  made.  He 
does  say  that  54.81  %  of  the  total  make  was  foundry- 
iron,  but  analyses  are  what-  is  needed  for  a  discussion  of 
this  kind,  not  calculations  as  to  the  proportion  of  foun- 
dry grades  made,  for  the  grades  included  under  this, 
classification  are  not  the  same  now  as  they  were  then. 

It  would  require  a  great  deal  of  labor  to  look  over  the 
records  of  those  days  with  a  view  to  .ascertaining  the  ef- 
fect of  the  burden  on  the  silicon  content  of  the  iron,  if 
indeed  the  investigation  would  lead  to  anv  definite  in- 
formation, for  chemical  analyses  were  not  then  carried 
on  with  this  purpose.  There  has  nofc  been  very  much 
improvement  in  this  respect  of  more  recent  years,  and 
even  today  chemists  here  are  not  expected  to  exa  nine  the 
furnace  records.  Still,  enough  information  has  been 
gathered  to  warrant  one  in  saying  that  the  tendency  of 
limy  ore  burdens  is  towards  decrease  of  silicon. 

The  subject  is  referred  to  here  because  it  is  not  a  mat- 


THE  FLUXES.  75 

ter  of  indifference  as  to  whether  the  flux  shall  go  in 
with  the  ore  or  be  added  as  limestone. 

In  the  light  of  the  experience  of  the  last  two  years  it 
begins  to  look  as  if  furnace  managers  would  do  well  to 
examine  into  the  effect  of  dolomite  on  the  content  of  sil- 
icon, and  to  cultivate  the  laboratory  more  systematically. 
A  chemist  who  is  made  to  feel  that  he  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  burdening  of  the  furnace  soon  restricts  himself 
to  the  merest  routine  work,  and  regards  the  questions 
of  more  lime  or  less  lime,  more  hard  ore  or  less  hard  ore, 
limestone  or  dolomite  with  an  indifference  born  of  re- 
peated rebuffs. 

In  the  chapter  on  Furnace  Burdens  there  is  given  a 
blank  form  which  has  proved  to  be  extremely  useful.  It 
may,  of  course,  be  modified  to  suit  any  emergencies. 
Properly  filled  out  with  additional  information  as  to  the 
amount  and  heat  of  the  blast,  silicon  content  of  the  irons 
&c.,  it  would  enable  the  chemist  to  be  of  far  greater 
value  to  the  furnace  than  he  can  ever  be  if  regarded 
merely  as  an  analyst  whose  business  begins  and  ends 
with  the  grinding  out  of  a  certain  number  of  results  every 
day.  If  a  chemist  is  worth  anything  at  all  he  is  worth 
trusting.  If  he  can  not  be  trusted  with  all  kinds  of 
information  as  to  the  working  of  the  furnace  he  should 
not  be  trusted  to  make  analyses,  and  unless  he  can 
know  what  goes  into  the  furnace  his  knowledge  of  what 
comes  out  is  of  no  use  to  him,  and  but  little  to  any  one 
else. 


76          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


FUEL. 

The  fuel  used  in  the  blast  furnaces  of  the  State  is 
coke  and  charcoal.  There  are  no  known  seams  of  coal 
that  could  be  used  without  coking,  as  is  done  in  Ohio  in 
this  country,  and  in  Scotland,  particularly,  abroad. 

Coke. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  subject  connected  with  the  iron 
business  that  gives  rise  to  more  discussion  than  that  of 
coke.  There  are  so  many  different  kinds  made,  and  so 
great  diversity  among  them  in  respect  of  chemical  and 
physical  properties,  that  it  is  almost  a  hopeless  task  to 
attempt  to  set  the  matter  forward  in  a  manner  satis- 
factory to  all  concerned.  In  this  State,  which  produces 
about  10  per  cent,  of  the  coke  made  in  the  United  States, 
there  is  a  very  considerable  difference  in  quality  between 
the  various  grades  of  this  fuel. 

This  chapter  is  not  a  treatise  on  coke,  nor  is  it  neces- 
sary to  enter  upon  the  subject  beyond  what  is  required 
to  explain  the  situation. 

Three  kinds  of  coke  are  made  here,  from  lump  coal, 
run  of  mines,  and  washed  slack,  and  each  of  these  three 
may  be  48  hr.  or  72  hr.  coke.  Regarded  in  this  way, 
and  excluding  mixtures,  of  which  there  may  be  endless 
variety,  we  have  six  different  kinds  to-wit : 
48  hour —  72  hour — 

Lump,  Lump, 

Run  of  mines,  Run  of  mines, 

Washed  slack,  Washed  slack. 


FUELS.  77 

The  ordinary  practice  is  to  use  48  hr.  coke,  and  per- 
haps 90  per  cent,  of  the  coke  is  of  this  kind.  The  chief 
difference  between  the  48  hr.  coke  and  the  72  hr.  coke  is 
in  the  strength,  or  the  ability  to  resist  abrasion  and 
crushing,  the  latter  having  somewhat  the  advantage  in 
this  respect. 

The  following  table  gives  the  results  of  some  experi- 
ments undertaken  to  establish  the  crushing  strain  of 
some  of  the  principal  cokes  used  for  blast  furnace  and 
foundry  purposes.  The  table  given  in  the  first  edition 
of  this  book  gave  tests  on  coke  made  here  in  1891-92. 
Since  that  time  there  have  been  many  improvements, 
and  it  has  been  thought  best  to  substitute  a  new  table 
for  the  old  one.  The  later  results  represent  the  pres- 
ent composition  of  the  cokes,  and  in  addition  the  com- 
position of  the  ash.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  all 
the  Alabama  cpkes  are  not  represented,  but  it  has  been 
impossible  to  secure  the  proper  samples.  Enough,  how- 
ever, is  given  to  show  the  quality  of  some  of  the  chief 
varieties  of  this  fuel  now  used  in  the  State. 


78 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


> 

*1 


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O~HtHr-Ji-!i-iO'-i'-iO|!-H 


FUELS.  7^ 

TABLE  VII. 

72  HR.  BEE-HIVE  COKE,  MADE  FROM  WASHED 
PRATT  SLACK. 


iu 

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cc 

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u  5 

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No. 

Is 

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S:S  »"& 

(B  i^ 

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1 

3 
A 

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** 

o> 

"Q  <^2     S  > 

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o.  y 

£'O 

-  >i 

.     *^J   &  r^ 

o  *3  i' 

02 

5*1 

£ 

s>S 

P* 

"*"  a 

QDQ  S. 

]8 

1.153 

1.848 

3760 

32.60 

550 

13.10 

0.90 

J9 

1.131 

1.881 

3980 

35.30 

575 

13.20 

0.95 

20 

1.057 

1.821 

41.98 

39.72 

537 

8.70 

131 

21 

1.013 

1.855 

4540 

44.78    , 

575 

1130 

0.92 

22 

0.701 

1.810 

4H.4L 

48.00 

725 

9.10 

1.10 

23 

1.217 

t.861 

3463 

2728 

550 

6.50 

0.98 

24 

0.971 

1.891 

4863 

50.06 

675 

8.80 

1.05 

25 

1.155 

1.890 

38.60 

33.40 

450 

7.40 

1.15 

26 

0.967 

1.810 

4654 

48.11 

700 

7.70 

1.00 

27 

1.071 

1.813 

4094 

38.22 

600 

9.40 

1.04 

28 

0862 

1.850 

53.30 

61.80 

431 

8.50 

0.90 

29 

0.840 

1-.765 

5420 

67.60 

420 

9.00 

094 

30 

0910 

1.805 

50.25 

5530 

460 

9.25 

0,97 

Aver. 

1.003 

1.838 

44.48     | 

4%.  77 

558 

9.34 

1.02 

48  h:  .  Disintegrated  Pratt  Nut.  Not  Washed. 


31 
32 

0866 
0.812 

'  1.667* 
1.359 

48.00 
4055 

55.34           325 
49/62     ,       400 

11.55 
14.02 

1.30 
1.40 

Aver. 

0.839 

1.513 

±4.27 

52.48     1       362 

12.  7H     1 

1.35 

Tl  hr.  Disintegrated  Pratt  Nut.  Not  Washed. 


33 
34 

1.355 
1.351 

2593 
2542 

47.77 
4700 

3425 
5310 

550 

587 

1050 
10.30 

1.20 
1.25 

Aver. 

1  358 

2.567 

47.38 

53.67 

568 

10.40 

1.22 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF   ALABAMA. 


TABLE  VII— Continued. 
48  hr.  Washed  and  Disintegrated  Pratt  Slack. 


i  ^ 

0 

en 

£   . 

«*-4   O 

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OQ-£ 

1  £ 

11 

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||.g 

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No. 

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11 

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,4 

03 

ig 

go 

« 

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»-t.   Oi   CX-*" 

S  2  §5 

"^ 

"s 

p,ca 

£ 

S-^ 

"^    0 

6®  a 

35 

0996 

1.850 

46.10 

46.20 

650 

10.10 

0.98 

36 

0.861 

)  839 

56.20 

69.40 

400 

1030 

1.00 

37 

1.000 

1805 

4440 

44.10 

575 

1030 

1.03 

38 

0.862 

1.695 

49  12 

56.96 

700 

10.70 

1.06 

39 

0.828 

1.818 

46.00 

45.50 

500 

9.00 

0.96 

40 

1.100 

1850 

40.30 

36.60 

675 

1120 

1  10 

41 

0.920 

1.630 

4420 

48.80 

625 

9.90 

1.00 

Aver. 

0.938 

1.784     |   46  62 

49.65 

589 

10  12    )     1.02 

72  hr.  Washed  and  Disintegrated  Pratt  Slack. 


42 
43 

1.330 
0.956 

1.850 
1.822 

38.20 
47.60 

41.00 
50.00 

750 

750 

9  30 
9.25 

1.04 
1.02 

Aver. 

1.143 

1.836 

4290 

45.50 

750 

9.27 

1.03 

Black  Creek— 48  hr. 


44 

I 
0.900 

1.84 

46.20 

52.00 

4( 

400   !     3.90 


Milldale  (Standard  C.  &  C.  Co.,)  72  hr. 


Jefferson  C.  &  C.  Co.,  Lewisburg. 


0.79 


45 

0.961 

1.88 

47.00 

52.50 

545 

7.60 

0.80 

46 

i 
0.84       1.764 

52.46 

6254 

531 

10.20 

0.68 

Gas  Carbon. 


47 

1.25 

2.10 

40.50 

43.00 

600 

5.90 

1.23; 

FUELS.  81 

The  analyses  here  given  show  that  these  cokes  fall 
naturally  into  two  main  groups,  characterized  by  the 
porosity  (cell  space)  and  the  size  of  the  cells.  With 
regard  to  this  principle  of  classification  we  have  coke  in 
which  the  percentage  of  cells  by  volume  is  just  above  50, 
and  coke  in  which  the  percentage  of  cells  by  volume  ie 
just  above  40.  To  the  first  group  belongs  the  Blue 
Creek  coke,  and  to  the  second  the  Pratt  coke.  The 
figures  given  are  in  each  case  averaged  from  a  number 
of  determinations  on  separate  prices,  not  less  than  5.r 
and  in  most  cases  10.  For  48  hr.  Blue  Creek  coke  made 
from  washed  slack  the  averages  are  : 

Apparent  specific  gravity 0.85& 

True  «  "     1.764 

Per  cent,  of  cells  by  volume 52.18 

Volume  of  cells  in  100  parts  by  weight 61.59 

Compressive  strain 474  Ibs. 

Ash 11.05 

Sulphur 0.94 

For  48  hr.  Pratt  coke  made  from  washed  slack  the 
averages  are  : 

Apparent  specific  gravity   1.046 

True  "  " 1.839 

Per  cent,  of  cells  by  volume 42.96 

Volume  of  cells  in  100  parts  by  weight 41.49 

Compressive  strain 464  Ibs. 

Ash 9.16 

Sulphur ; 0.95 

There  is  a  marked  difference  in  these  two  cokes,  the 
one  exhibiting  a  large  cell,  and  the  other  a  small  cell,, 
while  in  strength  they  are  about  equal.     For  determin- 
ing the  specific  gravities,  and  the  cell  space  the  method 
6 


82          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

first  proposed  by  Dr.  T.  S terry  Hunt  in  1863,  and  modi- 
fied by  Dr.  F.  P.  Dewey  was  used  with  certain  changes. 
Instead  of  using  the  air  pump,  which  is  indeed  is  not 
necessary,  the  samples  were  boiled  in  water  for  16  hrs. 
and  allowed  to  stand  16  hrs.  in  water  before  weighing. 
For  the  compressive  strain  one  inch  cubes  were  accu- 
rately cut  from  sound  pieces  of  coke  with  a  hack-saw, 
and  a  Star  blade,  using  a  miter-box.  This  was  very 
tedious,  and  some  .of  the  cubes  required  as  many  as  6 
blades.  Coke  is  very  destructive  to  steel  saws.  Per- 
haps the  best  tool  would  be  one  of  the  diamond  wheels 
used  in  preparing  specimens  of  rocks  for  the  micros- 
cope. 

In  each  case  at  least  3  cubes  were  cut,  and  care  was 
taken  to  have  them  free  of  cracks  and  pieces  of  slate. 

They  were  crushed  in  a  standard  Riehle  Testing  Ma- 
chine, operated  by  hand,  and  reading  to  3,000  Ibs.  It 
was  observed  that  now  and  then  some  cubes  of  72  hr. 
and  96  hr.  coke  withstood  more  than  3,000  Ibs.  stress, 
but  this  does  not  often  occur,  and  is  immaterial  as  a 
coke  testing  3,000  Ibs.  is  certainly  strong  enough. 

It  must  be  understood  in  all  discussions  of  the  physi- 
cal qualities  of  coke  that  great  differences  may  be  found 
in  samples  from  the  same  oven,  and  indeed  in  samples 
from  the  same  part  of  the  oven.  Too  much  importance 
should  not,  therefore,  be  laid  upon  such  investigations, 
for  one  may  very  easily  be  mislead,  and  draw  entirely 
erroneous  conclusions.  In  connection  with  chemical 
analyses  physical  tests  may  be  relied  upon,  in  compar- 
ing one  coke  with  another,  to  give  fairly  accurate  data, 
but  they  should  be  accepted  only  if  based  upon  a  long 
series  of  determinations  in  which  the  conditions  of  manu- 
facture are  positively  known.  The  size  of  the  coal  coked , 
the  amount  of  water  it  holds,  the  rapidity  of  the  coking 
process  and  its  duration,  the  amount  of  water  used  in 


FUELS.  83 

quenching,  and  whether  inside  or  outside  watering  is 
used  are  some  of  the  factors  to  be  considered.  Within 
certain  limits  the  chemical  composition  of  the  coal  ap- 
pears to  be  of  less  influence  upon  the  physical  qualities 
of  the  coke  than  the  factors  just  mentioned. 

The  72  hr.  bee-hive  coke  made  from  washed  Pratt 
slack  does  not  differ  materially  from  the  48  hr.  except 
as  to  its  strength,  giving  558  Ibs.  as  against  464  Ibs. 
It  is  especially  adapted  for  foundry  purposes,  the  in- 
crease of  strength  being  of  greater  benefit  here  than  in 
the  blast  furnace.  In  respect  of  strength  the  48  hr.  un- 
washed, but  disintegrated  Pratt  nut  is  much  inferior  to 
the  72  hr.  The  disintegration  of  Pratt  nut  coal,  un- 
washed, and  subsequent  coking,  whether  for  48  hrs.  or 
72  hrs.  appear  to  yield  a  coke  of  about  the  same  percent- 
age of  cells  by  volume  as  the  48  hr.  and  72  hr.  washed 
slack,  but  the  volume  of  the  cells  is  much  larger,  viz.,  as 
53  to  41.  The  strength  of  the  unwas-hed  disintegrated 
Pratt  nut  of  48-  hrs.  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  48  hr. 
washed  slack,  while  that  of  the  72  hr.  unwashed,  disin- 
tegrated nut  is  somewhat  above  the  strength  of  the  72 
hr.  washed  slack.  In  other  words,  disintegrating  the 
unwashed  nut  coal  gave  a  coke  of  about  the  same  per- 
centage of  cells  by  volume,  "and  increased  the  size  of  the 
cells,  but  failed  to  better  the  coke  with  respect  to  crush- 
ing strain. 

Washed  and  disintegrated  Pratt  slack,  whether  coked 
for  48  hrs.  or  72  hrs,,  makes  a  fine  coke  in  every  respect. 
In  order  to  compare  these  cokes  with  standard  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Virginia  cokes  we  append  results  obtained  by 
Mr.  John  Fulton,  and  given  in  his  excellent  Treatise 
on  Coke. 

The  average  standard  Connellsville  coke  shows : 

True  specific  gravity ,     1.77 


84  GEOLOGICAL  SUKVAY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Per  cent,  of  cells  by  volume 45 .8T 

Volume  of  cells  in  100  parts  by  weight 54.13 

Compressive  strain . 279  Ibs.. 

Ash 10.58 

Sulphur 0 .81 

Two  cokes  from  Big  Stone  Gap,  Va.,  showed  on  the 
average : 

True  specific  gravity 1 .64 

Per  cent,  of  cells  by  volume 44.78 

Volume  of  cells  in  100  parts  by  weight 55 .22 

Compressive  strain 285  Ibs^ 

Ash 5.61 

Sulphur 0.87 

Pocahontas  coke  gave  : 

Apparent  specific  gravity 1 .83 

Per  cent,  of  cells  by  volume 52.07 

Volume  of  cells  in  100  parts  by  weight ........  47.93 

Compressive  strain ,  .  .  . .  236  Ibs. 

Ash 5.88 

Sulphur 0.73 

Mr.  Fulton  gives  also  the  results  from  an  examination 
of  Blocton  coke.  Ala.,  as  follows  : 

True  specific  gravity 1.75 

Per  cent,  of  cells  by  volume 49.97 

Volume  of  cells  in  100  parts  by  weight 50.03 

Compressive  strain 409  Ibs. 

Ash 6.94 

Sulphur 0.74 

The  writer  found  the  average  of  two  samples  of  Bloc- 
ton  coke,  48  hr.  bee-hive  : 


FUELS.  85 

True  specific  gravity 1 .65 

Per  cent,  of  cells  by  volume 44.46 

"Volume  of  cells  in  100  parts  by  weight 45.98 

Oompressive  strain 737  Ibs. 

Ash 5.80 

--Sulphur 1.35 

And  a  sample  of  Pocahontas  (Stonega)  coke  gave  : 

True  specific  gravity 1.84 

Per  cent,  of  cells  by  volume , 53 .83 

Volume  of  cells  in  100  parts  by  weight 63  01 

Oompressive  strain 588  Ibs. 

Ash , 6.50 

Sulphur r. 0.75 

Coke  made  at  Earlington,  Kentucky,  by  the  Sc.  Ber- 
nard Coal  Company,  gave  for  48  hr.  bee-hive  : 

True  specific  gravity 1.69 

Per  cent,  of  cells  by  volume 53.47 

Volume  of  cells  in  100  parts  by  weight.  67.67 

Compressive  strain 275  Hb 

Ash 14.60 

Sulphur 1 .74 

Not  to  protract  this  matter  further,  although  many 
more  tests  could  be  given,  we  close  with  a  72  hr,  bee 
hive  coke,  made  at  Brookside,  Ala.,  by  the  Sloss  Steel  & 
Iron  Company,  of  washed  slack  : 

True  specific  gravity 1.87 

Per  cent,  of  cells  by  volume 55.00 

Volume  of  cells  in  100  parts  by  weight.  .  65.20 

Compressive  strain 320  Ibs. 

Ash 10.  0 

Sulphur 1.25 


86  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Some  investigations  have  been  made  as  to  the  effect  of 
carbonic  acid  on  red  hob  coke,  but  other  and  more  press 
ing  work  prevented  their  completion.  Some  high  au- 
thorities, among  them  Sir  I.  Lowthian  Bell,  have  recom- 
mended that  the  action  of  carbonic  acid  on  red  hot  coke 
be  included  among  the  determining  factors  in  the  valua- 
tion of  coke  for  blast  furnace  purposes.  But  the  writer 
is  not  disposed  to  think  that  such  data  are  of  much,  if 
any,  importance.  The  gases  in  a  blast  furnace  are  mix- 
tures of  carbonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
and  nitrogen,  with  aqueous  vapor  also.  It  is  not  known 
what  effect,  if  any,  is  produced  by  carbonic  acid  in  the 
presence  of  these  other  gases.  It  is  not  as  if  carbonic 
acid  were  the  only  gas  that  would  or  could  act  upon  the 
coke,  for  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  always  accompanied  by 
other  gases  in  greater  or  less  quantities.  Doubtless  the 
dissolving  action  of  carbonic  acid  upon  red  hot  coke  is 
an  important  phenomenon,  and  one  well  worthy  of  study, 
but  until  it  is  known  whether  the  other  gases  exert  a 
neutral,  an  accelerating  or  a  deterring  effect  upon  this 
dissolving  tendency  it  does  not  appear  that  much  prac- 
tical information  is  gained .  The  matter  of  zone  reactions 
in  the  furnace  also  complicates  the  question,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  occlusion  of  gases  in  coke. 

The  average  composition  of  the  cokes  used  in  the  State 
is  as  follows  : 

Coke  from  Run  of  Mines  Coal. 

PER    CENT. 

Moisture 0.75 

Volatile  and  combustible  matter      0.75 

Fixed  carbon 84.50 

Ash 14.00 

100.00 
Sulphur 0.90—1.60  per  cent. 


FUELS.  87 

Coke  from   Washed  Slack. 

Moisture 0.75 

Volatile  and  combustible  matter 0.75 

Fixed  carbon 88.50 

Ash. 10.00 

100.00 
Sulphur 0.80—1.10  per  cent. 

Coke  from  Lump  Coal. 

Moisture : 0.75 

Volatile  and  combustible  matter 0.75 

Fixed  carbon 87.00 

Ash 11.50 

100.00 
Sulphur 1.00—1.30  per  cent. 

In  chemical  composition  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any 
material  difference  between  the  48  hr.  and  the  72  hr. 
coke. 

The  composition  of  the  ash  of  the  various  cokes  in  use 
may  be  given  as  follows  : 

Run  of  Mines. 

Silica 47.03 

Ferric  oxide 12  46 

Alumina 33.62 

Lime 1.53 

Magnesia 1  *>9 

Sulphur 0.15 


88          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Washed  Slack. 

Silica .   45.10 

Ferric  oxide 12.32 

Alumina 31.60 

Li  me 1 .50 

Magnesia Trace. 

Sulphur 0.14 

Lvmp. 

Silica 46.00 

Ferric  oxide 12.00 

Alumina.. 32.00 

Lime   1.00 

Magnesia 0 .50 

Sulphur 0.16 

It  would  be  interesting  to  know  if  the  amount  of  ash 
and  its  composition  influenced  the  strength  of  the  coke, 
or  whether  the  treatment  of  the  coal,  prior  to  charging 
the  ovens,  and  the  duration  and  temperature  of  the  pro- 
cess should  alone  be  looked  to  in  explanation  of  this 
point. 

It  does  not  seem  probable  that  the  amount  of  ash  or 
its  composition,  per  se,  would  influence  the  strength  of 
the  coke  as  much  as  the  distribution  of  the  ash  constitu- 
ents in  the  coal. 

Thai  is,  if  the  coal  was  finely  pulverized  before  charg- 
ing there  would  be  a  more  equable  distribution  of  the 
ash-constituents  with  consequent  uniformity  of  composi- 
tion in  the  coke.  But  uniformity  of  composition,  how- 
ever desirable,  does  not  necessarily  imply  increase  in 
strength.  Granting  that  there  would  be  increase  in 
strength  is  this  effect  beneficial  when  the  coke  is  already 
strong  enough?  If  the  coke  made  from  any  coal,  with- 
out pulverizing,  were  already  strong  enough,  the  only 
advantage  in  pulverizing  would  be  in  the  greater  uni- 
formity of  composition.  But  some  coals  do  not  yield 


FUELS.  89 

strong  coke  unless  they  are  pulverized.  Whether  this  is 
due  to  the  irregularity  of  the  distribution  of  the  ash,  or 
the  bituminous  matter,  or  the  relation  between  the  Coking 
and  the  non-coking  constituents  of  the  coal,  is  not  known. 
When,  however,  such  coals  are  pulverized  they  often 
make  excellent  coke. 

The  composition  of  the  ash  of  coke,  by  affecting  its 
fusibility,  may  affect  also  its  strength,  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  cells  and  the  thickness  of  the  cell  walls.  But  of 
such  matters  very  little  is  known. 

It  requires  a  great  deal  of  time  to  make  such  investi- 
gations, as  well  as  skill  and  perseverance. 

The  composition  of  the  ash  of  coal,  whatever  effect  it 
may  have  on  the  quality  of  the  coke  made  from  it,  cer- 
-tainly  has  an  important  bearing  on  furnace  practice.  It 
must  influence  the  fusibility  of  the  burden,  and  to  a 
greater  or  Usser  degree  affect  the  consumption  of  lime- 
stone, whether  this  be  the  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  hard 
ore,  or  t-xtra  stone.  The  more  acid  the  ash  the  more 
base  is  required  for  fluxing. 

The  amount  of  coke  used  per  ton  of  iron  varies,  of 
course,  with  the  nature  of  the  coke,  and  of  the  other 
constituents  of  the  burden  ;  with  the  kind  of  iron  made, 
the  shape  and  size  of  the  furnace,  the  rate  of  driving, 
and  other  circumstances  grouped  generally  under  the 
term  ''furnace  practice."  The  range  is  from  1.16  to 
.1.72  tons  of  2240  pounds.  From  an  rxamination  of 
150,000  tons  of  iron  made  from  1890  to  1895  under  vary- 
ing conditions  the  lowest  consumption  for  a  period  of 
one  month  was  1.16  tons  per  ton  of  iron.  In  this  par- 
ticular case  the  furnace  was  working  on  all  brown  ore, 
the  burden  being  composed  of  brown  ore  52.9,  limestone 
20.4,  and  coke  26.7.  The  tons  of  iron  made  per  charge 
was  1.53  tons,  number  of  charges  1802,  total  iron  made 
2766  tons,  of  which  99.1  per  cent,  was  of  foundry  grades. 


90          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

The  consumption  of  materials  per  ton  of  iron  made  was 
ore  2.31  tons,  stone  0.89  ton,  and  coke  1.16. 

The  particular  case  in  which  1.72  tons  of  coke  were- 
used  per  ton  of  iron  made  was  when  a  furnace  was  run- 
ning on  the  following  mixture,  stated  as  percentages, 
hard  ore  53.7,  soft  ore  34.2,  brown  ore  12.1.  The  entire 
burden  was  composed  as  follows,  in  percentages,  hard 
ore  28.5,  soft  ore  18.2,  brown  ore  6.3,  limestone  10.6, 
coke  36.4.  The  iron  made  per  charge  was  1-88  tons, 
number  of  charges  1819,  total  iron  made  3418  tons,  of 
which  92  per  cent,  was  of  foundry  grades.  The  con- 
sumption of  material  in  tons  per  ton  of  iron  was  as  fol- 
lows : 

Ore 2.51 

Stone 0.49 

Coke .1.71 

The  average  consumption  of  coke  per,  ton  of  iron  may 
be  taken  ai  1.41  tons  of  2240  pounds.  This  would  mean 
that  for  producing  the  835,851  tons  of  coke  iron  in  1895- 
there  were  used  1 ,179,375  tons  of  coke  and  that  250,000' 
tons  of  coke  made  in  the  State  during  that  year  were- 
diverted  to  same  other  purpose. 

The  average  for  the  best  coke  made  in  the  State  may- 
be taken  at  1.30  tons  of  2240  pounds  for  a  ton  of  iron  of 
2240  pounds.  A  pound  of  iron  has  been  made  in  the- 
State  with  less  than  a  pound  of  coke,  but  for  a  very  lim- 
ited period. 

This  matter  will  be  taken  up  more  fully  in  the  chap- 
ter on  Furnace  Burdens,  as  tables  have  been  prepared 
based  on  more  than  83,000  charges  and  an  iron  produc- 
tion of  nearly  150,000  tons  over  a  period  of  several  years. 

There  has  been  a  notable  decrease  in  the  consumption? 


FUELS.  91 

of  coke  per  ton  of  iron  since  the  introduction  of  coke 
made  from  washed  slack  coal.  It  is  much  superior  to 
ordinary  coke  both  in  structure  and  composition,  and 
might  be  still  further  improved  by  pulverizing  the  coal 
before  charging  the  oven,  as  in  this  way  a  better  distri- 
bution of  the  ash  is  rendered  possible  as  well  as  a 
stronger  coke. 

No  constituent  of  the  burden  responds  as  readily  to 
variations,  in  furnace  practice  as  coke.  It  forms  gener- 
ally more  than  a  third  of  the  burdon,  and  always  more 
than  half  of  the  total  cost  of  the  materials  entering  into 
a  ton  of  iron  is  chargeable  to  coke.  It  is  not  only  the 
most  costly  single  ingredient,  it  is  more  costly  than  the 
ore  and  the  stone  taken  together. 

Economy  in  the  use  of  coke  is,  therefore,  the  most 
important  economy  that  can  be  set  on  foot  and  carried 
out  in  connection  with  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron  in 
this  State.  Better  ore  and  better  stone  are  needed  if 
there  is  to  be  no  better  coke.  To  improve  the  ore  and 
the  stone  is  to  increase  the  yield  of  iron  per  charge,  and 
to  decrease  the  consumption  of  the  most  costly  material 
entering  the  furnace,  i.  e.  coke. 

The  following  table  gives  a  bird's  eye  view  of  the  coke 
industry  in  Alabama  from  1880  to  the  close.of  1897,  and 
is  compiled  from  the  reports  of  Joseph  D.  Weeks  to  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  Division  Mineral  Re- 
sources, with  additional  statistics  for  1896  and  1897. 

The  greatly  lamented  death  of  Mr.  Weeks,  on  the  26th 
of  December,  1896,  removed  from  the  industrial  world 
one  of  the  best  statisticians,  and  one  whose  contributions 
to  the  manufacture  of  coke  were  always  especially  recog- 
nized and  appreciated. 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA 


TABLE  VIII. 
COKE  OVENS  IN  ALABAMA. 


00 

00 

"O 

c 

c 

Ovens. 

1 

OJ 
0 

3 

0   ° 

Value  of  Coke. 

.s 

•si 

1 

^   « 

2§ 

°| 

pj 

g 

z> 

Built. 

Building 

£ 

13 

^ 

isl 

93 

o 

| 

0) 

'fl 

5 

0 

•i  O 

H 

o^ 

r* 

-=3 

'         0 

Q 

K*^ 

.      P"! 

I 

1880 

4 

316 

100 

106,283          60,781 

57 

$     f83,063 

$3.01 

1881 

4 

416 

120 

184,881 

109,033 

59 

326,819 

3.00 

1882 

- 

536 

261,839 

152,940 

58 

425,940 

2  79 

1883 

6 

767 

122 

:>59,699 

217,531 

60 

598^,473 

2^75 

1884 

8 

976 

242            413,184 

244,009 

60 

609,185 

2.50 

1885 

11 

1,075 

16            507,934 

301,180 

59 

755,645 

2.50 

1886 

14 

1,301 

1,012 

635,120 

375,054 

59 

993,302 

2.65 

1887 

15 

1,555       1,3«2 

550.047 

325,020 

59 

775.090 

2.39 

1888 

18 

2,475|          406 

848,608 

508,511      60 

1,189,5791  2.34 

1889 

19 

3,9441          427 

1,746,277 

1,030,510!     59 

2,372,417 

2.30 

1890 

2C 

4,805  j          371 

1,809,964 

1,072,942 

59 

2,589.447 

2.41 

1891 

21 

5,068!           50 

2.144,277 

1,282,496 

60 

2,986,242 

2.33 

1892|20 

5,320             90 

2,585,966 

1,501,571      58 

3,464,623 

2.31 

1893 

23 

5,548|           60 

2.015,398 

1.168,08o 

58 

2,64K,632 

2.27 

1894 

22 

5,551 

50 

1,574,245 

923,817 

58.7 

1,871,348 

2  25 

1895 

22 

5,658 

50 

2,459,465 

1,444.339!  58.  7 

3,033,521 

2.10 

1896 

24 

5,363 

1,769,^20 

1,038,707^58.7 

2.181.284 

2.10 

1897)25 

5,365 

120 

2,451,475 

1,443,01715.8.8      3,094,461 

2.14 

The  average  value  of  the  coal  used  in  making  coke  in 

1895  was  87-J-  cents  per  ton;  in  1896,  79  <>-lO  cents;  and 
in  1897,  88i  cents.     There  were   no  new  ovens  built  in 

1896  or  1897.' 

Mr.  Jas.  D.  Hillhouse,  State  Mine  Inspector,  makes 
the  production  of  coke  in  1896,  1,689,307  tons,  and  the 
number  of  ovens  4,494. 

As  of  interest  in  connection  with  coke  and  coking 
operations,  there  is  given  here  an  article,  by  the  author, 
on  coking  in  a  Bee-hive  oven,  published  in  the  Engi- 
neering and  Mining  Journal,  N.  Y.,  and  also  part  of  a 
report  made  to  the  Sloss  I.  &  S.  Co.  on  the  use  of  Pratt 
washed  slack  coal  in  the  Otto  Hoffman  oven,  published 
in  the  American  Manufacturer  and  Iron  World. 


FUELS.  93 

COKING    IN    A    BEE-HIVE    OVEN. 

(The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  Vol.  LXIV,  Nos.  25  and  26,  and 
Vol.  LXV,  No.  3.) 

It  has  for  several  years  been  of  interest  to  me  to  ob- 
serve the  progressive  changes  that  took  place  in  a  bee- 
hive oven  from  the  moment  of  charging  'the  coal  to  the 
withdrawal  of  the  coke.  The  opportunity  of  observing 
and  noting  these  changes  from  hour  to  hour  was  pre- 
sented lately,  and  gladly  accepted,  and  for  nearly  48 
hours  the  oven  was  closely  watched.  The  observations 
were  taken  in  person.  The  coal  used  was  washed  slack, 
from  the  Pratt  seam. 

The  oven  was  of  the  usual  bee-hive  type,  of  12  feet 
diameter,  the  spring  of  the  arch  beginning  at  26  in.  from 
the  floor.  The  door  was  2£  ft.  wide  and  3  ft.  high. 
The  trunnel  head  was  14  in.  deep  and  14 in.  in  diameter. 
The  weight  of  washed  slack  charged  was  11,575  Ibs.,  but 
as  it  contained  5%  of  moisture  the  drv  weight  was 

/  ^  o 

11,024  Ibs.  The  oven  was  charged  at  11 :50  a.  m.,  and, 
after  leveling,  the  top  of  the  coal  was  4  ft.  below  the 
bottom  of  the  trunnel  head.  The  door  was  bricked  up  at 
once.  A  charge  of  coke  had  been  drawn  from  the  oven 
during  the  morning,  so  that  it  was  hot.  Within  a  few 
minutes  after  charging  there  was  an  odor  of  light  hydro- 
carbons from  the  door  and  from  the  trunnel  head,  and  in 
20  minutes,  after  charging,  this  odor  became  quite  per- 
ceptible. For  the  first  two  hours  there  was  no  flame, 
but  the  evolution  of  a  grayish-black  smoke  became  more 
and  more  intense.  At  2  :30  p.  m-,  2  hours  and  40  min- 
utes after  charging,  -the  first  flame  appeared  and  burned 
with  a  decided  reddish  tinge  until  3  :30,  or  one  hour, 
when  it  became  yellowish.  For  the  next  two  hours  the 
flame  from  the  trunnel  head  was  yellowish  and  smoky. 
On  top  of  the  coal  the  flame  was  yellowish,  streaked 


94  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

with  grayish- black  bands  of  smoke,  which  seemed  to  lie 
rather  closely  to  the  coal.  By  six  o'clock,  six  hours 
after  charging  and  3-J-  hours  after  the  first  ignition,  the 
flame  from  the  trunnel  head  was  4  ft.  high  and  of  a  de- 
cided yellowish  color.  At  seven  o'clock,  4i  hours  after 
ignition,  the  oven  was  perceptibly  hotter,  the  flame  was 
burning  fiercely,  and  there  were  wisps  of  blackish-gray 
smoke  in  the  oven.  There  were  but  few  signs  of  fritting, 
although  the  smoke  in  the  oven  might  have  obscured 
them  had  they  been  present.  Shortly  after  seven  o'clock 
I  was  unfortunately  called  away  and  could  not  return 
for  two  hours,  »o  there  were  no  observations  until  at  10 
o'clock,  7i  hours  after  ignition  ;  the  flame  had  then  loat 
its  distinctive  yellowish  cast  and  was  decidedly  whitish. 
It  was  still  4  ft.  out  of  the  trunnel-head  and  the  oven  was 
much  hotter.  The  top  of  the  coal  was  fritted,  cracks  of 
considerable  size  had  appeared :  there  was  not  much 
smoke  in  the  oven,  but  white  flames  were  issuing  from 
the  cracks  and  burning  in  a  flickering,  lambent  manner. 
There  was  no  perceptible  swelling  up  of  the  coal,  but  on 
top  it  was  uneven  and  jagged.  The  cracks  did  not  seem 
to  lie  in  any  special  direction,  nor  to  be  of  any  uniform 
size  or  depth.  The  play  of  the  flames  from  the  cracks 
was  most  beautiful.  None  of  them  burned  steadily,  al- 
though none  went  out.  There  was  no  appearance  of 
"blows"  of  gas  or  any  sudden  outburst  at  any  spot. 
Now  and  then  a  white  flame  would  seem  to  be  sucked 
back  into  the  depths  of  a  crack  and  to  vanish,  but  at  no 
time  did  any  of  them  go  out  entirely.  There  were  no 
wisps  of  smoke  in  the  oven.  The  flames  seemed  to  burn 
with  about  the  same  intensity  and  there  was  a  remark- 
able uniformity  in  their  height  and  general  appearance. 
Nine  hours  after  ignition. — The  flame  from  the  trunnel 
head  was  still  from  3  to  4  ft.  high,  but  had  not  changed 
much  in  appearance,  being  still  decidedly  whitish ;  it 


FUELS.  9  5 

was  thinner  than  before.  Inside  the  oven  the  cracks  in 
the  coal  were  wider  and  deeper  and  the  coal  was  much 
more  broken  and  jagged.  In  several  places,  noticeably 
beneath  the  trunnel  head,  the  coal  had  sunk,  and  there 
were  crater-like  depressions,  from  which  flickering  white 
flames  issued  and  had  a  slightly  bluish  tinge.  The  oven 
was  much  hotter  than  at  the  last  observation.  Bright 
white  flimes  burned  in  jets  over  the  surface  of  the 
coal,  the  so-called  "candles"  of  the  coke  burner.  They 
were  distributed  irregularly  over  the  surface  of  the  coal, 
burned  intermittently,  died  down  and  came  up  again 
from  the  same  place,  or  close  by.  About  12  inches  of  the 
coal  from  the  top  seemed  to  be  burning,  as  the  door  was 
hot  for  this  depth,  but  cool  below. 

Ten  hours  after  ignition. — No  apparent  change  beyond 
the  further  development  of  cracks  in  the  coal,  and  its 
further  subsidence.  The  oven  was  hotter. 

Eleven  hours  after  ignition. — No  apparem  change  except 
that  the  oven  was  much  hotter,  approaching  a  white 
heat.  The  bluish  tinge  of  the  flame  inside  was  entirely 
gone. 

There  was'  no  specially  noticeable  change  at  the  12th 
and  13th  hours  after  ignition,  but  at  the  14th  hour 
the  oven  was  of  a  clear  white  heat,  the  inside  flames 
were  thin  and  white,  and  the  flames  from  the  trunnel 
head  had  begun  to  drop.  The  cracks  in  the  coal  were 
larger  and  more  numerous.  The  coal  had  burned  down 
to  the  24-inch  mark  on  the  door. 

Fifteen  hours  after  ignition. — Flames  from  the  trunnel 
head  much  thinner,  burning  fiercely  and  swiftly  in  a 
somewhat  streaked  fashion.  Within  the  oven  the  heat 
was  very  intense ,  the  cracks  in  the  coal  were  larger  and 
white  flames  of  a  slightly  bluish  tinge  played  irregularly 
over  the  surface. 

At  the  16th,  17th,  18th,  19th  and  20th  hours  after  ig~ 


96  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

nition  there  was  not  much  apparent  change ;  but  at  the 
21st  hour  the  flame  from  the  trunnel  head  was  much 
thinner  than  at  the  15th  hour,  and  had  receded  much 
more.  By  the  22d  hour  the  flame  was  decidedly  thinner 
than  at  the  21st  hour,  and  from  this  until  the  28th  hour 
it  gradually  became  thinner  and  thinner,  and  burned 
swiftly  with  a  striated  appearance.  Inside  the  oven 
the  cracks  were  still  developing,  and  white  flames  played 
over  the  top  of  the  mass.  The  heat  was  now  well  along 
toward  the  bottom  of  the  oven. 

Thirty-fourth  hour  after  ignition. . — There  were  no 
special  changes  in  the  flame  from  the  28th  to  the  34th 
hour,  except  that  it  became  thinner  all  the  while,  and  at 
the  34th  hour  was  just  out  of  the  trunnel  head.  From 
this  time  to  the  40th  hour  the  flame  gradually  drew 
back  into  the  oven,  until  it  could  no  longer  be  seen.  But 
when  the  oven  was  opened  for  drawing,  at  the  end  of 
the  46th  hour,  there  were  thin  jets  of  bluish  white  flame 
now  and  then  on  tof  of  the  coke.  The  door  of  the  oven 
was  taken  down  at  the  end  of  the  46th  hour  after  igni- 
tion, and  the  coke  watered  inside  the  oven  for  18  min- 
utes. The  oven  was  drawn  by  two  men  in  one  hour. 
The  yield  of  coke  over  a  fork  of  14  tines,  21  inches  wide, 
with  spaces  H  inches  in  the  clear,  was  5,875.80  Ibs.,  or 
58.78%  of  the  weight  of  the  dry  coal.  The  weight  of 
the  dry  breeze  through  the  fork  was  322  Ibs.,  or  5.13% 
of  the  weight  of  the  coke  over  the  fork.  The  proximate 
analysis  of  the  coal  used  was,  on  a  dry  basis  :  Volatile 
and  combustible  matter,  32.43  %  ;  fixed  carbon,  60.91  %  ; 
ash,  6.66%.  The  sulphur  was  1.91%.  The  composi- 
tion of  the  coke  over  the  fork  was,  on  dry  basis  :  Vola- 
tile and  combustible  matter,  1.51%;  fixed  carbon, 
88.90%  ;  ash,  9.59%.  The  sulphur  was  1.37%.  The 
composition  of  the  breeze  and  ashes  passing  the  fork 
was,  on  dry  basis:  Volatile  and  combustible  matter, 


FUELS.  97 

1.47%  ;  fixed  carbon,  56%  ;  ash,  42.53%.     The  sulphur 
was  1.14  per  cent. 

The  composition  of  the  black  ends  of  the  coke,  the 
so-called  " black-jack,"  was  on  a  dry  basis:  Volatile 
and  combustible  matter,  1.82  per  cent ;  fixed  carbon,  89 
per  cent;  ash,  9.18  per  cent.  The  sulphur,  1.29  per 
cent. 

By  screening  the  breeze  and  ashes  over  a  1-inch  screen 
there  was  recovered  25  Ibs.,  or  8  per  cent  of  material 
that  had  the  following  composition,  on  a  dry  basis : 
Volatile  and  combustible  matter,  1.25  per  cent;  fixed 
carbon,  88.40  per  cent;  ash,  10.35  per  cent ;  sulphur  y 
1.30  per  cent ;  while  the  297  Ibs.,  or  92  per  cent,  passing 
the  1-inch  screen  was  of  the  following  composition  on  & 
dry  basis:  Volatile  and  combustible  matter,  1.25  per 
cent ;  fixed  carbon,  61.40  per  cent ;  ash,  37.35  per  cent; 
sulphur,  0.85  per  cent.  Passing  the  breeze  and  ashes 
over  a  i-inch  screen  gave  35  per  cent  over  and  65  per  cent 
through.  The  material  over  the  i-inch  screen  gave,  on 
dry  basis:  Volatile  and  combustible  matter,  1.20  per 
cent;  fixed  carbon,  80.80  per  cent;  ash,  18  per  cent; 
sulphur,  1  percent ;  while  the  material 'passing  the  i-incli 
screen  gave,  on  dry  basis :  Volatile  and  combustible 
matter,  0.80  per  cent ;  fixed  carbon,  51.90  per  cent ;  ash, 
47.30  per  cent ;  sulphur,  0.80  per  cent. 

It  is  usual  in  the  Birmingham  district  to  fork  coke 
over  a  l|-inch  opening,  and  the  amount  of  breeze  and 
ashes  left  is  often  a  considerable  item.  It  depends  to  a 
great  extent  upon  the  coal  itself,  but  also  upon  the  skill 
of  the  coke-drawer,  the  manner  in  which  the  oven  is 
watered  having  a  great  deal  to  do  with  it.  Coke  made 
of  washed  coal  gives  much  less  breeze  than  the  same 
coal  unwashed,  the  difference  at  times  rising  to  50  per 
cent  in  favor  of  the  washed  coal.  Irrespective  of  the 
difference  in  the  quality  of  the  coke  made  from  un- 
7 


98  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY    OF    ALABAMA. 

washed  and  from  washed  coal,  which  of  course  is  the 
most  important  matter,  the  difference  in  the  yield  of 
furnace  coke,  as  between  the  two,  is  well  worth  consid- 
ering. 

A  second  oven  was  charged  with  a  similar  coal  on  the 
same  day,  and  was  operated  for  96-hour  coke.  Weight 
of  dry  coal  charged,  11,024  Ibs.,  the  coal  containing  5 
per  cent  of  moisture.  The  yield  of  dry  coke  over  a 
li-inch  fork  was  6,350  Ibs.,  or  57.51  per  cent  of  the  dry 
coal,  or  54.86  per  cent  of  the  coal  as  charged.  Time  of 
watering,  20  minutes;  time  of  drawing,  one  man,  1 
hour  57  minutes  weight  of  breeze  and  ashes,  dry,  240 
Ibs.,  or  2.17  per  cent  of  the  dry  coal  charged.  The 
analysis  on  dry  basis  was  : 


Breeze  and 
Coal.           Coke.                ashes. 
Vol.  and  combust,  matter.           32.46              1.06                     2.68 
Fixed  carbon  .  .  60  .  86           89  .  63                  69  .  79 
Ash                                                    «  fiS             fl  31                   97  *2 

Sulohur.  . 

100.00          100.00                 100.00 
1.89              1.34                     1.23 

Over  a  1-inch  screen  there  was  recovered  from  the 
breeze  and  ashes  14  Ibs.  (=5.8  per  cent)  of  material  of 
the  following  composition,  dry  :  Volatile  and  combusti- 
ble matter,  1.56;  fixed  carbon,  8655;  ash,  11,89.  The 
sulphur  was  1.20  per  cent.  The  material  passing  the 
1-inch  screen  was  not  analyzed . 

A  third  oven  was  charged  on  the  same  day  with  a 
similar  coal,  and  operated  for  72-hour  coke.  Time  of 
watering,  17  minutes;  time  of  drawing,  two  men,  55 
minutes;  weight  of  dry  coal  charged,  11,024  Ibs.,  or 
with  5  per  cent  moisture,  coal  charged,  11,575  Ibs.: 
weight  of  dry  coke,  6,590  Ibs.,  over  a  H-inch  fork,  or 
59.7  per  cent  by  weight  of  the  dry  coal  and  56.93  per 
cent  of  the  coal  as  charged  ;  weight  of  breeze  and  ashes, 
285  Ibs.  diy,  or  2.58  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  dry 


FUELS. 


001 

99 


coal  charged  and  4.33  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  coke 
over  a  li-inch  fork .     The  analysis  was  as  follows  : 


Vol.  and  combust,  matter. 
Fixed  carbon  

Coal. 
.     82.55 
.  .  .  60  64 

Coke. 
1.71 

88.35 

Breeze  and 
ashes. 
1.09 
79.97 

Ash                               

R  -1 

9  94 

18  94 

r:'j    '..••/£<•>'!'*"'>•&    fO^O.'J   t*1 
Sulnhur  . 

100.00 
1.93 

100.00 
1.31 

100.00 
1.21 

V    / 


The  composition  of  the  black  ends  of  the  coke  was : 
Volatile  and  combustible  matter,  2.26  ;  fixed  carbon, 
86.52  ;  ash,  11.22.  The  sulphur  was  1.28  per  cent. 

Screening  the  breeze  and  ashes  over  a  1-inch  screen 
gave  34  Ibs.  (11.9  per  cent)  of  material  of  the  following 
composition,  dry  :  Volatile  and  combustible  matter,  0.80  ; 
fixed  car'- on  87.64  ;  ash  11.56  ;  sulphur  was  1.28  per  cent. 
The  material  passing  the  1-inch  screen  was  of  the  follow- 
ing composition,  dry  :  Volatile  and  combustible  matter, 
1.00;  fixed  carbon,  69.90;  ash,  29.10;  sulphur,  1,10 
per  cent. 

The  coal  used  in  these  three  ovens  was  the  same, 
washed  slack,  and  was  of  practically  the  same  composi- 
tion. Each  buggy  of  coal  was  sampled  as  it  was  dis- 
charging into  the  oven. 

In  the  following  table,  which  embodies  the  results, 
the  composition  of  the  coal  is  the  average  of  the  three 
analyses,  and  all  the  calculations  are  based  on  dry  ma- 
terial : 

TABLE  IX. 

SHOWING  CHEMICAL  CHANGES  FROM  COAL  TO  COKE.      PROXIMATE  ANALYSES. 


^ 

"3 

pi  I* 

' 

,1 

_~ 

X2 
Su 

a 

6 

I8 

** 

!«. 

Vol  and  c- 
m«tte 

| 

Sulphur. 

Viela  oi  dr 
iu  coke. 

*1 

2 

[m  reaseof 
from  coal  t< 

1? 

L»ecre«se  o 
ma  ter  fro 
t<«  «>ke 

ueciease  < 
],hur  Iron 
to  coke 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

I'er 

Per 

cent 

cent 

cent. 

cent. 

cent  ' 

ceut 

cent. 

rent. 

Ctllt 

cent- 

Coal. 

32.48 

60.80 

'6.72 

1.91 

48  hr    coke  
72-hr,  coke  

1.51 
1.71 

88.901  --9.50 
88.35      9.94 

1.37 
1.31 

58  78 
59.77 

2  92 

2.58 

46  21  J2..71 
45.31    48.51 

95.35 
91.73 

28.27 
31.41 

%  nr-  <-<>k«     

1.06 

89.631     W.31 

••.34 

57.51 

2.17 

47.41 

3^.54 

96.73 

29.S4 

100         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

The  average  yield  of  dry  coke  over  a  H-inch  fork,  from 
dry  coal,  was  58.69  per  cent.  The  average  increase  of 
the  fixed  carbon  was  46.31  per  cent  and  of  the  ash  43.25 
per  cent.  The  average  decrease  of  the  volatile  matter 
was  95.94  per  cent,  and  of  the  sulphur  29.84  per  cent. 

As  a  further  contribution  to  this  study,  I  give  the  ulti- 
mate analyses  of  the  coal  and  of  the  coke,  averaged  dry 
basis  : 


TABLE    X. 


ULTIMATE    ANALYSES   O»F   GOAL   AND  COKE. 

Coal.  Dense  coke.  "Needle"  coke. 

Carbon 78.23  84.55  97.55 

Hydrogen '..        4.51  1.33  1.12 


Oxygen  $.98  4.33  1. 

Nitrogen 1.56  0.18  0.00 

Ash..  6.72  9.61  0.10 


10C.OO  100.00  10000 

Sulphur 1.90  1.31  0.27 


The  analysis  of  the  needle  coke  will  be  commented' 
upon  later. 

By  comparing  the  proximate  composition  of  the  coal 
and  of  the  coke  with  the  ultimate  composition  several 
very  interesting  things  are  observable.  What  is  termed 
"  fixed  carbon  "  in  the  proximate  analysis  of  coal  is  a 
very  different  thing  from  the  carbon  obtained  on  com- 
bustion, being  in  the  one  case  60.80  %  .and  in  the  other 
78.23  %  .  In  the  proximate  analysis  the  fixed  carbon  is 
the  difference  between  the  sum  of  the  volatile  matter 
and  the  ash  and  100,  on  a  dry  basis.  If  the  volatile 
matter  is  32.48,  and  the  ash  6.72,  the  fixed  carbon  is 
100 -—  (32.48  «plus  6.72)  .equals  60.80.  But  in  driving. 


FUELS.  101 

off  the  volatile  matter,  even  iri  a  covered  platinum  cru- 
cible enclosed  within  another  covered  crucible,  there  is 
a  serious  loss  of  carbon  because  the  volatile  matter  itself 
is  largely  composed  of  gaseous  hydrocarbons  together 
with  more  or  less  solid  carbon  going  off  in  the  smoke. 
^The  soot  is  not  pure  carbon,  but  contains  some  hydro- 
carbon compounds  whose  nature  varies  according  to  cir- 
cumstances, such  as  the  rapidity  of  the  heating,  the  dur- 
ation of  the  heating  and  the  nature  of  the  coal  itself. 
But  the  question  at  once  arises.  Can  any  of  these  vola- 
tile hydrocarbons,  reckoned  as  such  in  the  ordinary 
proximate  analysis,  be  used  in  the  coke  oven,  during  the 
coking  process,  as  a  source  of  carbon  ?  The  answer  to 
this  depends  upon  the  nature  of  tiie  hydrocarbons,  the 
temperature  of  the  oven  and  the  thickness  of  the  bed  of 
coke  over  the  still  burning  coal. 

It  is  well  known  that  certain  hydrocarbon  gases  evolved 
from  coal  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature  are  decom- 
posed at  a  higher  temperature  with  deposition  of  carbon  ; 
for  example,  olefiant  gas,  C2H4,  and  acetylene,  C2H2f 
this  latter  gas,  indeed,  decomposing  under  certain  con- 
ditions, at  ordinary  temperatures.  But  olefiant  gas  and 
acetylene  do  not  occur  in  the  destructive  distillation  of 
coal  beyond  a  few  tenths  of  1  per  cent.,  as  shown  by  Dr. 
Fyfe  several  years  ago  in  the  Journal  of  Gaslighting.  and 
Ebelmen  found  that  after  being  in  the  oven  7i  hours 
coal  gave  only  1.667  per  cent,  of  carburetted  hydrogen 
in  the  gases  collected .  It  is  possible  that  reactions  going 
on  within  the  mass  of  burning  coal  and  the  mass  of  red-hot 
coke  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  allow  some  of  the  hydro- 
carbons evolved  to  deposit  carbon  ;  but  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  calculate  just  how  much  of  this  deposited 
carbon  there  is  in  any  one  oven  of  coke.  The  very  bright 
silvery  needles  and  blades  of  coke  found  on  bee-hive 
-coke  are  composed  of  almost  pure  carbon,  the  combustion. 


102         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

giving  97.55  per  cent.  But  these  blades  and  needles 
form  an  insignificant  proportion  of  the  coke,  and  a  very 
thin  coating  of  this  silvery  deposited  carbon  serves  to 
improve  the  appearance  of  the  coke.  Deposited  carbon 
may  and  probably  does  increase  the  yield  of  the  coke, 
but  to  a  very  slight  extent,  and  appears  to  enhance  the 
appearance  of  the  coke  without  adding  much  to  its 
weight.  Some  time  ago  I  had  an  opportunity  of  secur- 
ing some  very  fine  specimens  of  deposited  carbon  from 
a  bee-hive  oven.  Some  large  lumps  of  limestone  were 
thrown  in  on  top  of  a  charge  to  make  lime.  When  the 
coke  was  ready  to  water  these  lumps  were  taken  out  be- 
fore the  water  touched  them.  I  examined  them  closely 
and  found  that  in  the  cracks  of  the  lower  lumps,  and 
indeed  upon  the  surface  of  some  of  the  smaller  pieces,, 
which,  however,  may  have  come  from  the  larger  lumps, 
there  were  sheets  of  almost  pure  carbon,  the  analysis 
giving  about  98  per  cent.  The  sheets  were  as  thick  as 
ordinary  letter  paper,  and  were  somewhat  flexible. 
There  were  countless  little  globules  of  bright,  silvery 
carbon  scattered  all  over  the  sheets,  and  under  a  i  inch 
objective  these  globules  were  seen  to  be  covered  with  a 
network  of  fine  lines,  running  hither  and  thither.  On 
illuminating  these  globules  with  a  focussing  glass  in 
bright  sunlight,  they  presented  a  most  beautiful  appear, 
ance  under  the  microscope,  resembling  great  globes  of 
silver  floatrag  in  blackness.  I  have  never  seen  a  more 
beautiful  sight  than  they  exhibited. 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  the  appearance  pre- 
sented by  these  globules  under  the  microscope  closely 
resembles  that  given  by  botryoidal  limonite.  There  is 
the  same  network  of  fine  lines,  dividing  the  surface  into 
many  irregular  shaped  patches.  Hair  coke,  the  so-called 
"  whiskers  "  of  the  coke  burner,  is  also  composed  of 
almost  pure  carbon,  and  under  a  1-12  inch  objective  are 


FUELS.  10B 

often  found  to  be  covered  with  little  globules,  adhering 
to  the  sides  of  the  • '  hair  "  and  looking  like  pearls  strung 
on  a  silver  wire. 

Percy  (Metallurgy,  Fuel,  Etc.,  pp.  421-422)  speaks 
of  the  hair-like  form  of  coke  and  gives  an  explan- 
ation of  its  origin,  through  deposition  of  carbon  in  tha 
inner  surface  of  carbon  tubes  blown  out  by  escaping  gas. 
The  hairs  are  sometimes  completely  filled  with  car- 
bon, but  at  other  times  are  hollow,  as  I  have  myself 
observed. 

A  study  of  this  hair-coke  by  a  competent  microscopist 
would  certainly  be  interesting.  Now  and  then  the  hairs 
are  covered  with  little  curved  projections,  while  again 
they  resemble  a  thread  partially  untwisted  so  that 
the  separate  strands  are  visible.  Occasionally  they 
are  pierced  through  by  minute  holes,  a  high  magni- 
fying power  showing  several  holes  in  lines  across  the 
hair. 

I  have  amused  myself  mounting  many  specimens  of 
coke,  deposited  carbon,  hair-coke,  etc.,  for  the  microscope 
and  in  observing  their  peculiarities  of  structure  and 
their  exceeding  beauty  when  finely  illuminated.  Dull 
and  uninteresting  as  coke  may  seem  to  the  naked  eye, 
whpn  properly  mounted  in  balsam  and  the  balsam  from 
the  upper  part  removed  with  gasoline  there  are  few  ob- 
jects more  1  eautiful  under  a  -J  inch  objective,  or  even 
a  i  inch. 

It  might  be  that  a  microscopic  study  of  coke,  and 
especially  of  the  various  forms  of  deposited  carbon  found 
on  coke,  would  give  us  soms  valuable  information,  and 
I  did  begin  such  a  study,  but  the  pressure  of  other  mat- 
ters forced  me  to  abandon  the  investigation  at  the  time, 
and  since  then  I  have  been  unable  to  resume  it. 

My  excuse  for  this  degression  must  be  that  in  those 
forms  of  carbon,  whether  sheets,  or  blades,  or  needles, 


104 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


or  hair,  we  seem  to  have  nearly  pare  forms  of  deposited 
carbon. 

Percy  (ut  supra) ,  has  more  or  less  to  say  about  deposited 
carbon,  and  Fulton  in  his  excellent  book  on  Coke 
also  speaks  of  it.  But  although  all  authorities  agree 
that  such  action  may  and  probably  does  take  place 
in  a  coke  oven  the  amount  of  carbon  thus  gained  is  not 
and  cannot  be  stated  with  accuracy.  As  before  re- 
marked, a  very  thin  coating  of  bright  silvery  carbon 
may  serve  to  better  the  appearance  of  the  coke  without 
adding  materially  to  the  weight. 

The  48-hour,  72-hour  and  96-hour  cokes  from  this  in- 
ve^tigation  were  examined  for  specific  gravity,  cell 
space  and  strength.  The  results  were  as  follows  : 

TABLE    XI. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,    CELL  SPACE  AND    STRENGTH    OF    COKES. 


Per  cent. 

Volume 
of  cells 

Compressive 
strain  —  % 

48-hour   . 

Appar. 
specific 
gravity. 
....1.029 

True 
specific 
gravity. 
'1.913 

of  cells 
by 
volume. 
4658 

in  100 
parts  by 
weight. 
46.29 

ultimate 
strength 
1  in.  cube. 
440  Ibs. 

72-  hour   . 

....0.875 

1.785 

52.22 

61.45 

550    " 

96-hour   . 

....0.921 

1.839 

4884 

54.30 

660    " 

L  may  be  remarked  in  regard  to  the  porosity  of  coke, 
as  cSerermined  by  the  percentage  of  cells  by  volume  and 
thi-  v  >lume  of'  cells  in  100  parts  by  weight,  that  single 
estimations  are  rarely  of  any  value.  During  the  last 
few  years  I  have  made  many  su^h  estimations,  and  the 
variations  in  samples  from  the  same  oven  are  often 
verv  considerable,  confirming  Dr.  Dewey's  observa- 
tions. One  would  naturally  expect  variations  between 
the  dense,  well-bodied  coke  and  the  black  ends,  whether 


FUELS.  105 

from  top  to  bottom,  but  the  variations  I  refer  to  are 
to  be  found  in  even  the  best  coke  from  the  same 
ovens.  The  results  given  in  Table  XI  are  aver- 
ages from  two  samples  taken  from  the  best-looking 
coke. 

In  determining  the  apparent  and  the  true  specific 
gravity,  the  percentage  of  cells  by  volume,  and  the 
volume  of  cells  by  100  parts  by  weight,  I  have  used 
the  method  first  suggested  by  Dr.  Sterry  Hunt  ("  Can- 
ada Geological  Survey,  1863,  1866, "  pp.  281-283), 
and  afterward  improved  by  Dr.  F.  P.  Dewey.  ("  Trans- 
actions. American  Institute  Mining  Engineers,  Vol. 
XII,  p.  Ill) .  But  not  having  a  goqd  air  pump,  I 
boiled  the  samples  for  12  hours  and  allowed  them  to 
stand  in  the  water  for  12  hours  more.  The  formu- 
las used  are  as  follows  :  a  =  weight  of  dry  coke ; 
b  =  weight  of  water  absorbed ;  c  =  loss  of  weight 
in  water  of  the  saturated  coke.  Then:  c  :  a  =  100: 
x  =  Apparent  specific  gravity,  c — b  :  a=  100  :x  =  True 
specific  gravity.  c  :b  =100  :x  =  Per  cent,  of  cells  by 
volume  a  :b^lOO  :x  =  Volume  of  cells  in  100  parts  by 
weight. 

The  determination  of  the  ultimate  strength,  which, 
divided  by  four,  gave  the  compressive  strain,  was  made 
in  a  Riehle  Standard  Testing  Machine  on  1-in.  cubes. 
The  cubes  were  carefully  sawed  from  the  coke,  and 
were  cut  so  as  not  to  include  any  cracks.  An  8-in. 
jhack-saw  with  "  Star  "  blades  does  very  well,  although 
the  destruction  of  the  blades  proceeds  with  distressing 
rapidity.  A  diamond  saw,  such  as  is  used  for  prepar- 
ing sections  of  minerals  for  microscopic  examination, 
would  doubtless  be  an  excellent  tool  for  this  work.  I 
have  used  as  many  as  six  and  eight  ''Star  "  blades  in 
sawing  out  a  sing'.e  cube.  Coke  is  very  destructive  t 
steel  saws  even  the  very  best  soon  becoming  utterly  use- 


106         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

less,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  nature  of  the  mate- 
rial. Objection  has  been  raised  to  this  method  of  pre- 
paring coke  samples  for  crushing,  and  Dr.  Thoerner 
recommends  cylindrical  test  pieces.  But  I  have  ob- 
tained closely  concordant  results  by  careful  sawing  out 
of  1-inch  cubes,  and  the  advantage  is  that  the  ultimate 
strength  is  given  directly  from  the  beam,  the  compres- 
sive  strain  being  taken  as  one-quarter  of  the  ultimate 
strength. 

Dr.  Dewey  recommends  taking  as  many  as  15  sepa- 
rate samples  from  each  oven,  for  determining  specific 
gravity,  etc.,  and  in  view  of  the  wide  variations  in  coke 
from  the  same  oven,  perhaps  this  number  is  not  too 
large. 

Speaking  generally,  Alabama  cokes  fall  into  two  main 
divisions,  so  far  as  concerns  the  porosity,  large-celled 
and  small-celled,  and  the  duration  of  the  coking  process 
does  not  seem  to  affect  the  principle  of  the  classification 
seriously.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  Thomas  ovens 
in  operation,  all  of  the  coke  now  made  in  the  ^tate  is 
the  product  of  bee-hive  ovens.  The  Solvay  Process  Com- 
pany, of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  is  building  120  by-product 
ovens  at  Ensley.  The  coal  to  be  used  will  be  similar  to- 
the  coal  of  these  experiments. 

As  a  rule,  48-hour  coke  is  used  by  the  blast  furnaces,, 
the  72-hour  coke  going  for  foundry  purposes.  The 
chief  difference  between  them  is  in  the  superior  density 
and  strength  of  the  72-hour  product.  There  is  also  les& 
breeze  from  the  ovens. 

Referring  now  to  Tables  IX  and  X  :  If  all  the  so-called 
volatile  matter  should  escape  without  depositing  any  of 
its  carbon,  and  none  of  the  so-called  fixed  carbon  should  be 
burned,  but  be  changed  to  coke,  one  might  expect  to  find 
in  the  coke  itself  90.04  per  cent,  of  carbon.  Excluding 
the  volatile  matter  of  the  48-hour  coke,  1.51  percent,  the 


FUELS.  107 

actual  amount  of  fixed  carbon  found  in  the  coke  was  90  26 
per  cent.  It  would  thus  appear  that  the  carbon  burned 
in  the  oven  is  counterbalanced  by  the  carbon  deposited 
from  hydrocarbons.  But  the  difficulty  of  ascertaining, 
by  analysis  of  the  escaping  gases,  just  what,  amount  of 
carbon  is  burned  is  so  complicated  that  there  is  but 
little  hope  of  arriving  at  even  approximate  accuracy. 
For  instance,  what  are  the  products  of  the  combustion 
of  carbon,  under  the  conditions  maintaining  in  a  bee- 
hive oven  ?  The  entire  consumption  of  the  carbon 
would,  of  course,  imply  the  free  entrance  of  air,  but  the 
air  is  to  a  great  extent  excluded.  Ebelmen  found  on 
collecting  gas  at  three  different  times  from  cylindrical 
ovens,  not  recovering  the  by-products,  the  following,  the 
figures  being  from  Groves  &  Thorps  "  Chemical  Tech- 
nology," Volume  I,  "  Fuels,"  by  Mill  &  Rowan. 


TABLE   XII. 

COMPOSITION    OF    COKE    OVEN    GAS ELBELMEN. 

After  After  After 
2  hours.  7%  hours.  14  hours.  Mean- 
Carbon  ic  acid. .: 10.13  9.60  1306  10.93 

Carburetted  hydrogen. . . .   1.44  1.66  0  40  1 17 

Hydrogen 6.28  3.67  110  368 

Carbonic  oxide 417  3.91  2.19  3.42 

Nitrogen 77.98  8116  8325  80.80 

The  composition  of  these  gases  varies  widely,  accord- 
ing to  the  period  of  coking,  and  there  are  doubtless 
other  circumstances,  apart  also  from  the  composition 
of  the  coal  itself,  which  would  cause  variations — the 
rapidity  of  the  firing,  the  thickness  of  the  bed  of  coal  and 
coke,  the  size  of  the  coal  charged,  the  quantity  of  air 
entering  the  oven,  etc.,  etc. 


108         GELOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Furthermore,  changes  are  continual  going  on  in  the 
oven  from  the  time  the  coal  gets  hot  and  begins  to  evolve 
gases  until  the  coke  is  watered  and  drawn,  and  these 
changes  are  not  necessarily  the  same  in  kind  or  in  degree 
throughout  the  coking  mass.  At  one  point  decomposa- 
ble gases  are  being  evolved,  at  another  they  are  deposit- 
ing carbon,  at  a  third  non-decomposable  gases — non-de- 
positing gases — are  coming  off,  at  a  fourth  gases  are 
being  evolved  that  under  proper  conditions  would  de- 
posit carbon,  but  which,  in  fact,  are  escaping  into  the 
air.  It  has  been  said  above  that  the  deposited  carbon 
counterbalanced  the  carbon  that  was  burned  in  the  oven. 
This  presupposes  that  the  fixed  carbon  of  the  coal  is  of 
the  same  nature  as  the  -fixed  carbon  of  the  coke  ;  a  sup- 
position not  always  tenable.  When  the  volatile  matter 
is  driven  off  from  coal  in  a  platinum  crucible  at  the 
highest  temperature  of  a  blast  lamp,  it  is  certainly  pos- 
sible that  some  carbon  is  deposited  in  the  mass  of  the 
coke  thus  formed.  A  closed  platinum  crucible  within 
another  closed  crucible  is  a  miniature  coke  oven,  and  if 
carbon  is  deposited  in  the  large  oven  it  should,  also, 
other  things  being  equal,  be  deposited  in  the  very  small 
one.  Under  the  microscope  carbon  left  in  the  crucible 
does  exhibit  evidences  of  the  existence  of  deposited  car- 
bon, for  the  fine  globules  of  bright  silvery  luster  with 
the  reticulated  markings,  so  characteristic  of  deposited 
carbon,  are  sometimes  observable  under  a  i-inch  object- 
ive, and  now  and  then,  but  more  rarely,  under  a  i  inch 
objective. 

But  the  conditions  favorable  to  the  deposition  of  car- 
bon are  more  abundant  and  more  pronounced  in  a  coke 
oven  than  in  a  crucible,  so  that  it  is  likely  that  the  coke 
from  an  oven  has  relatively  much  more  deposited  (and 
therefore  very  pure)  carbon  than  the  residue  in  a  cruci- 
ble after  driving  off  the  volatile  matter.  Taking  every- 


FUELS. 

thing  into  consideration,  it  would  appear  that  the  fixed 
carbon,  as  determined  in  the  ordinary  method  of  analy- 
sis, is  not  of  the  same  nature  as  the  fixed  carbon  of  the 
coke.  But,  practically,  the  difference  is  not  of  any  mo- 
ment and  the  subject  has  merely  a  scientific  interest. 

Deposited  carbon,  in  pieces  of  considerable  size,  is 
sometimes  obtained  from  the  arch  of  recovery  (by  pro- 
duct) ovens. 

Under  this  discussion  it  might  be  of  interest  to  con- 
struct a  table  from  Table  X,  which  would  show  the 
changes  in  ultimate  composition  between  the  coal  and 
the  coke,  as  Table  IX  does  for  the  ingredients  determined 
by  proximate  analysis. 


Table  XIII.  —  Changes  in   Ultimate  Composition  from  Coal  to  Coke. 

«M  «M  «f-t  «4-l  «*H 

o  o    •       o  0,0 

1  1  i  1  1.  ,  i!  ii  it  if  h 

O         K0^^5          Q^fi          ft         £ 
^        ^      ^       ^      ^        ^         ^         ^         ^         ^ 

Coal  .......  78.23  4.51   8.98   1.56  6.72    ....  .................... 

Coke  ......  84.55   1.33  4.33  0.18  9  61  8.07  70.51  51.78  88.46  43.00 

Coke  is  very  far  from  being  pure  carbon  and  ash- 
forming  ingredients,  as  it  is  sometimes  taken  to  be. 
Aside  from  the  ash  in  this  analysis  there  are  present 
hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  the  sulphur  not  being 
considered.  Of  these  there  may  be  nearly  6  per  cent. 

Parry  made  some  determinations  of  the  nature  of  the 
gases  occluded  in  coke,  and  found  that  both  carbonic 
acid  and  methane,  were  present,  and  he  remarked 
that  the  carbonic  acid  probably  arose  from  the  oxidation 
of  the  carbon  after  the  coke  was  made,  and  that  an  ap- 
preciable loss  of  carbon  might  result  in  this  way.  But 
this  is  a  subject  of  which  little  is  known.  It  presents. 


110         GFLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

many  interesting  questions  to  the  metallurgical  chemist, 
and  is  deserving  of  further  investigation. 

No  investigations  were  made  on  these  cokes  as  to  the 
action  of  carbonic  acid,  as  recommended  by  Sir  I.  Low- 
thian  Bell,  or  of  hydrogen,  as  recommended  by  Dr. 
Thoerner.  In  the  employment  of  each  of  these  reagents 
considerable  loss  takes  place,  and  it  has  been  proposed 
to  use  this  loss  as  one  of  the  elements  entering  into  the 
valuation  of  coke  for  blast  furnaces.  There  are  many 
questions  arising  in  connection  with  coke,  and  to  exam- 
ine into  ail  of  them  would  take  much  more  time  than  is 
at  the  disposal  of  most  metallurgical  chemists. 

The  following  results  were  obtained  too  late  for  incor- 
poration in  the  body  of  this  article.  They  relate  to  the 
yield  of  coke,  over  a  H-inch  fork,  and  'ashes'  (breeze  and 
ashes)  from  Pratt  coal  in  a  bee-hive  oven.  The  moist- 
ure in  the  coal  was  not  given,  but  would  be  about  6%. 

Washed  Pratt  slack:  charged  coal  12,650  Ibs ;  ob- 
tained 72-hr,  coke  7,080  Ibs  '(=55.96%) ,  and  'ashes' 
348  Ibs.  (=2.75%). 

Washed  Pratt  slack:  charged  coal  13,150  Ibs.;  ob- 
tained 72-hr,  coke  7,725  Ibs.  (=58.74%),  and  'ashes' 
346  Ibs.  (=2.63%). 

Disintegrated  washed  Pratt  slack  ;  charged  coal  11,000 
Ibs;  obtained  72-hr,  coke  6,715  Ibs.  (=61.04%),  and 
'ashes'  271  Ibs.  (=2.4(>%). 

Disintegrated  washed  Pratt  slack  :  charged  coal  11,300 
Ibs.;  obtained  72-hr,  coke  7,275  Ibs.  (=64.38%),  and 
'ashes'  230  Ibs.  (=2.04%). 

In  these  experiments  the  disintegration  of  the  coal 
was  followed  by  a  considerable  increase  in  the  yield  of 
coke,  and  the  waste  in  ashes  fell  off,  in  one  case,  from 
2.63%  to  2.04%. 

The  quality  of  the  coke  made  from  the  disintegrated 
coal  was  in  no  wise  inferior  to  that  made  from  ordinary 


FUELS.  Ill 

washed  slack,  and   in   fact  the   coke  was   stronger   and 
denser  than  under  ordinary  circumstances. 

Disintegration  of  coal,  previous  to  coking,  is  not  car- 
ried on  to  much  extent  in  Alabama. 


ALABAMA  COAL 

IN 

BY-PRODUCT  OVENS, 

BY 

WILLIAM   B.  PHILLIPS 


ALABAMA  COALS  IN  BY-PRODUCT  OVENS.  I115 


ALABAMA  COAL  IN  BY-PRODUCT  0;    v      ,    ^ 
EXTRACT  FROM  A  REPORT  MADE  TO  THE  SLOSS 
IRON  AND  STEEL  CO. 

(American  Manufacturer,  Vol.  LXI1,  p  446.) 

BY 
WILLIAM  B.  PHILLIPS. 

It  is  proposed  to  give  in  this  paper  an  account  of  the 
testing  of  54,000  pounds  of  Alabama  coal  at  the  Otto- 
Hoffman  by-product  ovens  of  the  Pittsburg  Gas  and 
Coke  Co.,  near  Glassport,  Penn.,  undertaken  with  the 
view  of  ascertaining  to  what  extent  this  coal  would  lend 
itself  to  the  recovery  of  by-products,  and  the  production 
in  a  by-product  oven  of  coke  suitable  for  use  in  the  blast 
furnace. 

The  works  at  Glassport  have  been  in  successful  opera- 
tion for  more  than  a  year  under  the  superintendence  of 
Dr.  F.  Schniewind,  who  introduced  the  system  into  this 
country.  They  consist  of  120  ovens,  in  four  batteries  of 
30  ovens  each.  The  capacity  of  each  oven,  when  fully 
charged,  is  about  7.5  tons  of  coal.  The  works  are  well 
provided  with  condensing  chambers,  ammonia  apparat- 
us, exhaust  pumps,  etc.  The  testing  of  this  coal  did 
not  in  any  wise  interfere  with  the  usual  operations  there, 
except  in  so  far  as  it  was  necessary  to  weigh  and  meas- 
ure the  products  obtained.  The  conditions  of  the  test 
did  not  vary  materially  from  those  under  which  large 
and  regular  operations  are  carried  on  every  day.  The 


.       GEOLOGICAL  SBRVBY  OF  ALABAMA. 

results,  therefore,  do  not  represent  what  might  be  ob- 
tained from  a  special  test  under  special  conditions,  but 
it  is  believed,  that  t&ey  can  safety  be  used  as  the  basis  of 
calculations  as  to  future  work. 

.  Th$  coal  used?  was  slack  from-  the  mines  of  the  S loss 
Iron  and  Steel  Co.,  Jefferson  County,  Ala.,  washed  in  a 
Robinson-Ramsay  washer.  It  came  from  the  Pratt  seam 
and  was  of  the  usual  quality  of  this  coal,  when  washed, 
as  the  following  average  analysis  will  show : 

Proximate  analysis  of  Pratt  washed  slack  coal.     Drs. 
Mason  and  Luthy,  Pittsburg  Gas  and  Coke  Co. 

Moisture 5 .95 

Volatile  matter 32.69 

Fixed  carbon 54.33 

...  7.03 


100.00 

Sulphur 0.94 

Phosphorus 0.0117 

.    The  ultimate  analysis  of  this  coal,  as  made  in  the 
Phillips  Testing  laboratory,  Birmingham,  is  as  follows  : 

Ultimate  analysis  of  washed  Pratt  slack  coal,  made  by 
the  Phillips  Testing  Laboratory,  Birmingham. 

Analysis  on  dry  basis  : 

Carbon 76 .50 

Hydrogen 4.90 

Oxygen , 10.15 

Nitrogen 1  25 

Ash.!  7.20 


100.00 

This  amount  of  nitrogen  is  equivalent  to  1.15  per  cent, 
of  ammonia,  and  the  disposable  hydrogen  would  be  3.61 
per  cent.  The -coal,  as  charged,  contained,  on  the  aver- 
age, 5.95  per  cent,  of  moisture,  but  for  convenience  it 


ALASAlVfA  COALS  IN  BY-PRODUCT  OVENS.  117 

~will  be  best  to  consider  it  as  dry  and  to  base  all  the  re- 
sults and  calculations  on  dry  coal.  Four  separate 
charges  were  tried  in  an  oven  fitted  up  for  the  purpose 
and  used  in  testing  various  coals  that  have  been  sent  to 
the  works.  A  very  careful  watch  was  maintained  over 
the  entire  operation  and  especial  thanks  are  due,  not 
only  to  Dr.  Schniewind,  and  to  Mr.  W.  P.  Parsons, 
Assistent  Superintendent,  but  also  to  the  gentlemen 
comprising  the  laboratory  force,  and  to  Messrs.  Thos.  G. 
Littlehales  and  Wm.  Speakman  for  the  very  kind  and 
unremitting  attention  given  to  the  test  throughout  its 
entire  duration. 

The  first  charge  contained  13,067  pounds  of  dry  coal, 
and  the  coking  time  was  34  hours  and  35  minutes.  Tiie 
coke  was  pushed  in  1  minute  after  taking  down  the 
doors  and  was  watered  on  the  outside.  When  ready  to 
load  the  coke  contained  1.80  percent  of  moisture.  The 
yield  of  dry  coke,  over  a  H  inch  fork,  was  8,490  pounds 
or  64.9  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of,  dry  coal.  The  dry 
breeze  weighed  320  pounds,  or  2.45  per  cent  of  the  dry 
coal,  so  that  the  total  weight  of  coke  obtained  was  8,810 
pounds,  or  67.3  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  dry 
coal. 

The  yield  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  was  19.2  pounds, 
per  ton  of  dry  coal.  It  was  decided  not  to  weigh  the 
tar  from  each  separate  charge,  but  to  wait  until  the 
test  was  completed.  The  highest  candle  powerobserved 
during  the  first  test  was  18.8,  and  the  average  was  JL3.2. 
The  average  specific  gravity  of  the  gas  was  0.471.  The 
highest  calories  were  6649,  equivalent  to  748.0  British 
Thermal  Units,  which  will  be  referred  to  hereafter  in  this 
paper  as  B.  T.  U.  The  average  heat  units  during  the 
first  tests  were  651.8,  or  5794  cals. 

The  second  charge  of  coal  represented  13,509  pounds 
•of  dry  coal.  The  coking  time  was  29  hours  and  30 


118         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

minutes.  The  yield  of  dry,  forked  coke  9,275  pounds, 
or  68.6  per  cent,  and  of  breeze  582  pounds,  or  4.3  per 
cent.,  a  total  yield  of  coke  of  9,857  pounds,  or  72.9  per 
cent.  The  yield  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  was  equiva- 
lent to  23.9  pounds  per  ton  of  dry  coal.  The  highest 
candle  power  observed  was  16.3,  the  average  being  11.1. 
The  highest  calories  were  6617,  equivalent  to  744.4 
B.  T.  U.,  the  average  being  5352  cals.,  or  602.1 
B.  T.U. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  gas  was  0.411.  The 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  coke,  when  ready  to  load, 
was  3  per  cent. 

The  third  char  ore  represented  13,882  pounds  of  dry 
coal,  and  the  coking  time  was  30  hours  and  5  minutes. 
The  yield  of  dry,  forked  coke  wis  9,02)  p  Kinds,  or  65.4 
per  cent.,  and  of  breeze  600  pounds,  or  4.3  percent.,  a 
total  yield  of  coke  of  69.7  per  cent.  When  ready  to 
load  the  coke  contained  3.0  per  cent,  of  moisture.  The 
highest  candle  powQr  ob3erved  was  17.8,  the  average  be- 
ing 11.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  gas  was,  on  the  av- 
erage, 0.451.  The  highest  calories  were  6330,  equiva- 
lent to  782.1  B.  T.  U.,  the  average  being  5429  cals.,  or 
618.1  B.  T.  U.  The  yield  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  was 
26.9  pounds  per  ton  of  dry  coal. 

The  fourth  charge  represented  14,171  piunds  of  dry 
coal,  and  the  coking  time  was  32  hours  and  20  minutes. 
The  yield  of  dry,  forked  coke  was  9,608  pounds,  or  67  8 
per  cent.,  and  of  breeze  708  pounds,  or  5.0  per  cent  ,  a 
total  yield  of  coke  of  72.8  per  cent.  When  ready  to  load 
the  coke  contained  -..30  per  cent,  of  moisture.  The 
highest  candle  power  observed  was  12.6,  the  average 
being  10.3.  The  average  specific  gravity  of  the  gas  was 
0.426.  The  highest  calories  were  6576,  equivalent  to 
739.6  B.  T.  U.,  the  average  being  5765  cals.,  or  (348.8 


ALDBAMA  COALS  IN  BY-PRODUCT    OVENS.  119 

B.  T.  U.      The  yield  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  was  25.5 
pounds  per  ton  of  dry  coal. 

The  average  amount  of  moisture  in  the  coke,  when 
ready  to  load,  was  3.02  per  cent.  The  average  yield  of 
dry,  forked  coke  from  dry  coal  was  66.7  per  cent.,  and 
of  breeze  4.0  per  cent.,  a  total  yield  of  70.7  per  cent. 
The  average  yield  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  was  23.9 
pounds  per  ton  of  dry  coal.  The  yield  of  tar  was  90 
pounds  per  ton  of  dry  coal.  The  average  quality  of 
the  tar  from  the  seal-pot  may  be  stated  as  follows  : 

Moisture 3.93 

Oil 1.52 

Specific  gravity 1.211 

The  average  quality  of  the  tar  from  the  exhauster  was 
as  follows  : 

Moisture 2.04 

Oil 2.04 

Specific  gravity 1.211 

The  average  analysis  of  the  coke  (Drs.  Mason  and 
Luthy)  was  as  follows,  on  a  dry  basis  : 

Volatile  matter 0.98 

Fixed  carbon <  90.22 

Ash.  8.80 


100.00 
Sulphur 1.28 

I  will  not,  at  this  time,  enter  upon  the  subject  of  the 
adaptibility  of  this  coke  for  blast  furnaces .  There  is  no  in- 
formation to  hand  respecting  its  use  in  the  Alabama  fur- 
naces, but  experiences  elsewhere  has  shown  that  per  unit 


120         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

of  carbon  it  has  nothing  to  fear  from  the  competition  of 
bee-hive  coke,  especially  when  to  the  making  of  coke  is 
added  the  saving  of  by-products.  If  it  were  merely  a 
question  of  coke  making,  without  reference  to  by-pro- 
ducts, perhaps  there  is  no  system  any  better  than  the 
bee-hive.  In  structure,  the  bee-hive  coke  has  the  adv-an- 
tage  over  by-product  coke  in  that  it  is  more  uniform,  but 
in  carbon  duty  there  is  not  much  if  any  thing  to  choose 
between  them.  By-product  coke  is  apt  to  contain  more 
moisture  and  to  be  somewhat  more  brittle  than  bee-hive 
coke,  but  under  conditions  allowing  of  the  utiliza- 
tion of  the  gas,  tar  and  ammonia,  the  loss  in  quality  of 
the  coke  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  profits 
accruing  from  the  sale  of  these  substances. 

The  average  yield  of  this  coal  in  the  bee  hive  oven  is 
somewhat  below  60  per  cent,  counting  breeze  as  coke,  so 
that  in  this  respect  the  by-product  oven  has  an  advant- 
age of  10  per  cent  to  12  per  cent,  greater  yield.  It  is 
doubtful  if  the  difference  will  amount  to  15  per  cent,  or 
16  per  cent,  as  some  would  claim.  If  we  accept  the 
statement  of  Sir  Lowthian  Bell  that  bee-hive  coke  is  10 
percent,  more  useful  in  the  furnace  than  by-product  coke, 
or  that  Mr.  John  Fulton  that  it  is  7  per  cent,  more  use- 
ful, we  should  be  prepared  to  anticipate  a  balancing  of 
carbon  duty  against  greater  yield,  one  off-setting  the 
other.  But  so  much  depends  upon  the  class  and  condi- 
tion of  the  stock,  and  the  actual  furnace  practice  that 
generalization  is  hazardous. 

The  gas  from  this  coal  is  well  adapted  for  illumina- 
ting purposes,  but  would  have  to  be  enriched  in  some 
carburetting  apparatus  to  bring  it  up  to  the  require- 
ments ordinarilv  made  in  regard  to  candle  power.  Du- 
ring the  first  24  hours  of  the  process  the  candle  power 
did  not  fall  below  8,  and  went  as  high  as  18.8.  The 
average  candle  power  during  the  first  period  of  12^  hours 


ALABAMA  COAL  IN  BY-PRODUCT  OVENS.  121 

was  13.1,  and  during  the  second  period  of  12  hours  it 
was  10.8.  By  operating  a  sufficient  number  of  ovens  in 
series,  so  as  to  keep  the  candle  power  at  about  the  same 
figure,  it  would  doubtless  be  possible  to  reach  15  or  16, 
leaving  from  0  to  7  candle  powers  to  be  added  by  the 
carburizer. 

The  gas  is  well  adapted  for  fuel  purposes,  the  heat 
units  ranging  from  141,379,700,  per  1,000  cubic  feet,  in 
the  second  period  of  12  hours  to  165,178,770  in  the  first 
period.  These  figures  are  less  than  for  natural  gas,  as 
this  may  go  to  209,979,000  heat  units,  per  1000  cubic 
feet.  The  yield  of  gas  was  9,600  cubic  feet  per  ton  of 
dry  coal,  of  which  3.000  cubic  feet  would  be  surplus  gas. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Alabama  Industrial  and  Scien- 
tific Society,  held  in  Birmingham,  December  21st,  1897, 
Mr.  W.  H  Blauvelt,  Engineer  for  the  Solvay  Process 
Company,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. ,  read  a  paper  on  The  Seraet- 
Solvay  Coke  Oven  and  Its  Products,  Mr.  Blauvelt  had 
previously  discussed  the  subject  in  The  Mineral  Indus- 
try, Vol.  IV.,  1896.  He  has  recently  republished  the 
important  parts  of  these  two  articles  in  pamphlet  form. 
Considering  that  the  Solvay  Process  Company  is  now 
erecting  120  of  the  Semet-Solvay  ovens  at  Ensley,  Ala., 
.and  will  soon  have  them  in  operation,  and  that  Mr. 
Blauvelt  is  thoroughly  versed  in  the  construction  and 
conduct  of  this  oven,  it  does  not  seem  to  be  out  of  place 
to  introduce  here  his  latest  remarks  upon  the  subject. 
Aside  from  the  utilization  of  the  hot  air  from  some  bee- 
hive ovens  for  raising  steam  under  boilers  usually  fired 
with  coal,  the  only  product  Irom  the  coke  ovens  in  this 
State  has  been  the  coke.  But  besides  the  coke  there  are 
other  valuable  products  to  be  obtained  from  coal  as  it  is 
being  changed  into  coke,  as,  for  instance,  ammoniacal 
compounds,  tar,  and  gas  suitable  for  heating  and  illumi- 
nating purposes.  These  can  be  and  in  many  places  are 


122  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY   OF  ALABAMA, 

now  recovered  from  the  coal  without  prejudice  to  the 
coke.  Their  recovery  and  subsequent  utilization  marks 
one  of  the  great  and  beneficent  departures  from  the 
former  way  of  making  coke.  The  system  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  Alabama  coals,  as  they  are  rich  in  tar,  am- 
moniacal  compounds,  and  gas,  all  of  which  can  be  re- 
covered and  used.  .  From  the  tar  maybe  made  pitch  and 
ordinary  light  and  ''dead"  oils,  and  a  great  number  of 
products  now  recognized  as  coal-tar  products,  number- 
less dyes  and  flavoring  extracts  and  medicines.  From 
the  atnmoniacal  compounds  sulphate  of  ammonia  is 
made,  a  very  valuable  material  used  in  the  manufact- 
ure of  fertilizers,  anhydrous  ammonia  now  so  largely 
used  in  the  South  in  ice-making  establishments,  and 
other  substances  more  or  less  largely  employed  in  the 
arts.  The  surplus  gas  may  be  used  for  all  kinds  of  heat- 
ing purposes,  for  cooking,  and  heating  residences  ;  and, 
by  enrichment,  for  lighting  purposes.  Instead,  there- 
fore, of  throwing  away  these  by-products  they  will  be 
utilized,  and  the  plant  at  Ensley — the  first  of  the  kind 
in  the  South — will  enter  upon  this  work  within  the 
present  year. 

Mr.  Blauvelt's  pamphlet — which  is   here  republished.. 
by  permission— is  as  follows  : 


ALABAMA  COAL  IN  BY-PRODUCT  CVENS.  123 

THE    SEMET-SOLVAY    COKE     OVEN     AND    ITS 

PRODUCTS.*     I 
BY  WILLIAM  H.  BLAUVELT. 

[Extract  from  proceedings  of  the  winter  meeting  of  the  Alabama  In- 
dustrial and  Scientific  Society,  held  in  Birmingham,  Ala.,  De- 
cember 21,  1897.1 

Gentlemen  of  the  Alabama  Industrial  and  Scientific  Society: 

The  plant  of  by-product  retort  ovens,  which  is  being 
erected  at  Ensley,  is  only  the  sixth  installation  of  by- 
product ovens  in  this  country.  In  Continental  Europe 
such  ovens  have  become  quite  an  old  story,  and,  in  fact, 
practically  no  bee-hives  are  built  there,  except  in  small 
or  isolated  plants.  So  few  years  have  passed  since  by- 
product ovens  were  first  introduced  in  America,  that 
they  are  still  a  novelty  to  very  many,  even  of  those  who 
are  well  acquainted  with  the  use  of  coke  and  its  manu- 
facture in  the  old  fashioned  way.  It  has,  therefore, 
been  suggested  that  a  brief  description  of  the  plant  at 
Ensley,  and  a  comparison  of  these  new  ovens  and  their 
products  with  the  old  bee-hive  type,  will  be  of  interest 
to  your  Society. 

The  plant  of  ovenc  now  under  construction  at  Ensley 
will  consist  of  120  retort  ovens,  with  their  accompany- 
ing apparatus  for  collecting  the  by-products  from  the 
distillation  of  the  coal.  It  is  probably  unnecessary  to 
say  that  retort  ovens  are  essentially  different  in  shape 
from  the  bee-hive  oven,  the  coking  chamber  being  usually 
about  30  feet  long  and  6  feet  high,  and  varying  in  width 
from  15  inches  to  30  inches  or  more,  depending  upon  the 
coal  to  be  coked,  and  the  type  of  oven.  The  coal  is 

*Portions  of  this  paper  are  taken  from  an  article  by  the  writer, 
which  was  published  in  "The  Mineral  Industry,"  Vol.  IV.,  1896,  which 
is  a  copyrighted  work,  and  such  extracts  are  here  used  by  the  special 
permission  of  the  Scientific  Publishing  Company,  the  proprietors  of 
"The  Mineral  Industry." 


124  G-EO  LOGICAL  SU  RVE  Y  OF  ALA  BAM  A. 

charged  through  three  or  more  holes  in  the  top,  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  a  bee-hive  oven,  except  that  the  oven 
is  filled  with  coal  to  within  about  eight  inches  of  the 
top.  The  coal  is  heated  and  the  volatile  matter  driven 
off  by  means  of  the  heat  generated  by  the  combustion  of 
gas  in  the  flues  or  passages  in  the  side  walls  of  the 
ovens.  A  fourth  opening  in  the  roof  of  the  oven  is 
connected  with  a  pipe  or  main,  which  carries  the  gas,  as 
it  comes  off  from  the  coal,  to  the  by-product  apparatus. 

The  Ensley  ovens  are  of  the  Semet-Solvay  design. 
This  oven  is  the  principal  exponent  of  what  is  known 
as  the  horizontal  flue  type,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
vertical  flue  type,  the  principal  representative  of  which 
is  the  Otto-Hoffman  oven.  In  the  vertical  flue  type  the 
gas  is  burned  in  two  horizontal  flues,  or  combustion 
chambers,  at  each  side  of  the  ovens  at  the  bottom,  which 
extend  half  way  toward  the  other  end.  The  products  of 
combustion  ascend  through  some  sixteen  small  vertical 
flues,  which  reach  to  the  top  of  the  oven,  where  they 
deliver  into  another  horizontal  flue,  which  reaches  the 
whole  length.  This  connects  with  a  similar  set  of  small 
flues,  which  deliver  the  hot  gases  into  a  horizontal  flue, 
or  combustion  chamber  at  the  bottom,  like  the  first,  and 
thence  to  a  regenerator  of  the  familiar  Siemens  type. 
Every  hour  the  travel  of  the  gases  is  reversed,  hot  air 
being  supplied  for  the  combustion  of  the  gas  from  the 
regenerators,  as  in  an  ordinary  Siemens  furnace. 

In  the  horizontal  flue  ovens  there  are  three  horizontal 
flues,  one  above  another,  on  each  side  of  each  oven,  ex- 
tending the  full  length  of  the  oven,  and  connected  with 
each  other  at  the  ends,  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  flue 
for  the  gas  and  flame.  The  travel  of  the  gases  is  from 
above  downward;  that  is,  through  the  top  flue,  then 
backward  through  the  second,  etc.,  the  bottom  flues 
"being  connected  with  a  passage  to  -the  chimney.  A 


ALABAMA  COAL  IN  BY-PRODUCT  OVENS. 

small  amount  of  gas  is  introduced  at  the  ends  of  the- 
top  and. second  flue,  along  with  a  sufficient  amount  of 
air  for  its  combustion.  This  air  is  preheated  by  a  simple 
arrangement  in  the  bottom  of  the  ovens,  and  the  com- 
bustion goes  forward  continuously  without  any  attention , 
often  for  weeks  at  a  time,  it  being  only  necessary  to  see 
that  the  proportions  of  gas  and  air  remain  the  same, 
and  are  of  sufficient  quantity  to  keep  up  the  necessary 
heat  in  the  ovens.  The  gases  after  leaving  the  ovens 
are  carried  under  boilers,  and  supply  steam  for  operating 
the  machinery  of : the  plant.  These  gases  go  to  the  stack 
at  a  temperature  of  not  much  over  200 6  C,  so  that  from 
the  point  of  view  of  heat  economics  these  ovens  are  very 
efficient. 

The  Semet-Solvay  ovens  are  usually  about  16  inches 
wide,  and  contain  about  4£  tons  of  coal  per  charge. 
This  charge  is  coked  in  about  twenty-four  hours,  and 
when  the  gases  are  all  driven  off,  the  doors  at  each  end 
of  the  ovens  are  opened,  and  the  whole-  charge  of  coke 
is  pushed  out  with  a  steam  pusher,  or  ram,  in  a  minute 
or  two.  As  soon  as  the  ram  has  been  withdrawn  and 
the  doors  are  closed,  the  oven  is  ready  for  another  charge, 
and  practically  no  heat  has  been,  lost,  as  the  quenching 
is  all  done  on  the  outside  of  the  oven.  The  whole  pro- 
cess of  discharging  and  recharging  an  oven  can  readily 
be  completed  in  fifteen  minutes. 

As  the  gas  which  is  distilled  from  the  coal  leaves  the 
ovens  it  enters  a  large  flue  known  as  the  hydraulic  main. 
This  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  block  of  ovens,  and 
is  partially  filled  with  water.  The  gas  bubbles  through 
the  water,  and  a  portion  of  the  tar  and  ammonia  is  con- 
densed out.  From  the  main  the  gas  passes  to  the  con- 
densers. These  are  large  vertical  cylinders  filled  with 
tubes  through  which  water  is  made  to  circulate.  The 
gas  passing  around  these  tubes  is  cooled,  and  a  further 


126         GELOGlCAi;  SURVEY  OF  ALARAMA. 

portion  of  the  tar  and  ammonia  condenses.  Rotary 'ex- 
hausters occupy  the  next  place  in  the  series  of  apparatus, 
their  use  being  to  draw  the  gas  from  the  ovens  through 
the  pipes  and  condensers,  and  to  discharge  it  into  the 
next  following  apparatus,  which  is  the  ammonia  washer. 
In  this  vessel  the  final  traces  of  ammonia  are  removed, 
and  the  gas  thus  cooled  and  washed  is  free  from  con- 
densable matter  and  ready  to  be  used  for  heating  or 
lighting.  A  portion  of  it  is  usually  withdrawn  at  this 
point  and  used  to  heat  the  flues  of  the  ovens,  but  if 
there  is  sufficient  demand  for  the  oven  gas  for  other  pur- 
poses, ordinary  producer  gas  may  be  substituted  for  it, 
and  the  whole  amount  produced  will  be  available  for 
sale.  This  amount  varies  with  the  coal,  but  is  usually 
from  eight  to  ten  thousand  cubic  feet  per  ton  of  two 
thousand  pounds.  The  quality  of  this  gas  is  more  fully 
described  later,  where  the  by-products  of  the  ovens  are 
discussed  somewhat  at  length. 

THE    PRODUCTS    OF    THE    BY-PRODUCT    OVEN. 

Coke. — An  investigation  of  the  subject  will  immedi- 
ately show  that  the  essential  distinction  between  the 
operation  of  the  retort  oven  and  that  of  the  ordinary 
beehive  is  that  in  the  former  the  coal  is  coked  without 
the  admission  of  air,  by  heat  applied  from  the  outside, 
while  in  the  latter  the  air  is  admitted  to  the  oven  and 
the  combustion  takes  place  immediately  over  the  body 
of  coal.  The  result  is  that  in  one  case  the  hydro-car- 
bons are  simply  distilled  off,  with  a  certain  breaking 
down  and  deposition  of  carbon  on  the  coke,  so  that 
a  yield  of  coke  greater  than  the  so-called  ''theoretical" 
can  be  counted  on,  wliilu  in  the  other  case  the  most  of 
the  hydrocarbons  are  burned  in  the  ovens,  some  carbon 
is  deposited,  and  some  of  the  fixed  carbon  of  the  coal  is 
burned,  resulting  in  a  yield  of  coke  less  than  the  theo- 


ALABAMA  COAL    IN  BY-PRODUCT  OVENS.  127 

retical.  As  an  illustration  of  the  difference  jn  yield 
resulting  from  this  difference  in  method  of  coking,  a 
good  yield  of  coke  from  Connellsville  coal  in  a  beehive 
oven  is  65  per  cent.,  while  in  a  good  retort  oven  it 
is  easy  to  get  75  per  cent.,  an  increase  of  about  10 
per  cent.  Of  course  this  increase  reduces  proportion- 
ately the  percentage  of  ash,  phosphorus,  etc.,  remain- 
ing in  the  coke,  so  that  the  retort  oven  yields  more  coke 
and  a  purer  coke  than  the  beehive  from  the  same  coal. 
This  increase  in  yield  varies  with  the  proportion  of  fixed 
.carbon,  ash,  etc.,  in  the  coal. 

The  quality  of  the  coke  made  in  the  by-product  ovens 
has  long  been  a  subject  of  discussion,  especially  among 
the  blast  furnace  men  of  Europe.  The  English  authori- 
ty, Sir  Lowthian  Bell,  made  a  series  of  careful  tests  a 
number  of  years  ago  and  pronounced  against  the  coke 
in  comparison  with  that  made  in  beehive  ovens,  and  his 
conclusions  were  accepted  by  English  ironmasters.  But 
improved  construction  and  practice  have  combined  to 
produce  a  better  coke,  and  it  is  reported  that  Sir  Low- 
thian Bell  has  modified  his  views  to  such  an  extent  that 
a  plant  of  retort  ovens  is  now  being  built  at  his  own 
works — those  of  Messrs.  Bell  Brothers.  On  the  Conti- 
nent retort  oven  coke  is  now  the  standard,  and  in  this 
country  we  are  just  beginning  to  realize  that  a  coke  not 
made  in  the  old  beehive  oven  and  not  having  the  famous 
silvery  gloss  of  coke  quenched  in  the  oven  is  proving 
itself  quite  equal  to  it  in  fuel  value. 

The  essential  difference  between  beehive  and  retort 
oven  coke  lies  in  its  hardness  and  shape,  caused  by  the 
different  application  of  the  heat  in  the  oven.  In  the 
beehive  the  coal  is  spread  out  in  a  layer  23  or  24  inches 
thick  over  a  surface  some  twelve  feet  in  diameter.  The 
bottom  of  the  oven  having  been  cooled  by  the  quench- 
ing of  the  previous  charge  and  by  contact  with  the  new 


128  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA:.- 

one.  the  coking  begins  at  the  top  and  extends  down- 
ward, reaching  the  bottom  in  from  32  to  34  hours.  The 
coke  has  ample  opportunity  to  swell  and  develop  a  cellu- 
lar structure  in  accordance  with  the  composition  of  the 
coal,  and  entirely  independent  of  any  attempts  at  con- 
trol. The  typical  form  of  beehive  coke  is  therefore  long 
finger-like  pieces,  widening  toward  the  bottom  of  the 
oven  and  with  an  inch  or  two  of  spongy  coke  at  each 
end.  The  inability  to  control  the  formation  of  the  cells 
makes  it  essential  that  just  the  right  coals  are  used,  or 
the  requisite  hard  body,  resistant  alike  to  pressure  and 
the  action  of  hot  carbonic  acid  in  the  blast  furnace,  -can- 
not be  obtained.  The  fact  that  the  coal  from  the  Con- 
nellsville  distrk-t  gives  just  the  requisite  structure  when 
coked  in  the  beehive  oven  is  the  reason  for  its  present 
pre-eminent  position  as  a  blast  furnace  fuel  in  America. 

In  the  retort  oven  the  coal  lies  in  a  high  narrow  mass, 
about  5  feet  high  and  from  16  to  20  inches  wide.  The 
previous  charge  having  been  pushed  out  rapidly  by  ma- 
chinery and  quenched  outside,  the  oven  is  hot  when  the 
fresh  charge  is  introduced  and  the  evolution  of  gases  be- 
gins immediately  from  the  coal  lying  in  contact  with  the 
hot  sides.  The  flow  of  gases  being  from  the  sides,  they 
meet  in  the  center  and  rise  to  the  top,  where  they  es- 
cape, forming  a  sort  of  cleavage  plane  midway  between 
the  two  walls.  Thus  the  pieces  of  retort  coke  are  stouter 
than  the  long,  slowly  developed  "fingers"  of  the  bee- 
hive oven,  and  are  a  little  shorter  than  half  the  width 
of  the  oven.  The  end  of  the  piece  next  the  wall  is 
denser  and  the  end  next  the  cleavage  plane  is  more 
spongy  than  the  main  body. 

The  cellular  structure  is  more  compressed  than  bee- 
hive coke,  principally  on  account  of  the  narrow  retort 
that  permits  no  expansion  in  the  direction  of  the  flow  of 
the  gases,  and  also  because  the  depth  of  the  charge  is 


ALABAMA  COAL  IN  BY-PRODUCT  OVENS.  129 

usually  about  two  and  one-half  times  as  great  as  in  the 
beehive.  The  cellular  structure  of  retort  coke  is  depend- 
ent somewhat  on  the  proportions  of  the  ovens,  the  tem- 
perature and"  the  time  of  coking. 

.  The  ability  of  the  retort  oven  to  coke  coals  that  cannot 
be  used  in  the  beehive  is  due  to  the  more  rapid  applica- 
tion of  the  heat,  fixing  the  pitchy  or  coke-making  por- 
tion of  the  coal  before  it  has  time  to  escape,  and  the 
formation  of  a  firm  cellular  structure  by  the  pressure. 

During  the  past  year  a  conclusive  test  has  been  made 
indicating  the  relative  values  of  retort  and  beehive  coke 
made  from  the  same  high  grade  coal,  of  a  quality 
adapted  to  both  the  retort  and  .beehive  practice.  For  a 
year  or  more  a  blast  furnace  has  been  run  either  entirely 
or  largely  on  retort  coke  made  from  the  Connellsvill6 
coal.  The  furnace  was  blown  in  on  retort  coke,  and  run 
for  some  months  without  any  signs  indicating  anything 
unusual  in  the  fuel.  Subsequently  a  portion  of  beehive 
coke  was  used  in  the  fuel  charge,  arid  from  time  to  time 
the  fuel  was  changed  from  all  retort  coke  to  all  beehive 
coke,  or  to  a  portion  of  each,  without  any  indications  in 
the  working  of  the  furnace  that  there  was  any  difference 
in  the  fuel. 

It  is  probable  that  prolonged  and  accurate  compari- 
sons would  show  that  the  hardness  of  the  retort  coke 
would  result  in  a  somewhat  lower  fuel  consumption  and 
a  cooler  furnace  top,  owing  to  the  weaker  action  of  the 
furnace  gases  on  the  harder  coke;  also,  that  the  blast 
pressure  would  have  to  be  slightly  higher  than  with  the 
beehive  coke. 

It  is  quite  within  the  bounds  of  possibility  that  some 
of  our  American  coals,  equal  in  chemical  purity  to  the 
Connellsville,  yet  inferior  to  it  in  adaptability  to  the 
conditions  of  the  beehive  oven,  may  prove  to  make  a 
coke  in  the  retort  oven  that  will  be  of  equal  value  in 

9 


ISO  Gfioio6t6AL  StTRVEV  o 

every  respect  with  the  Connellsville  beehive  coke.  In- 
deed, experiments  already  made  would  seem  to  point  in 
that  direction. 

Objection  has  been  made  to  the  retort  coke  on  the 
ground  that  it  is  watered  outside  the  oven,  thereby  de- 
stroying the  carbon  glaze  found  on  coke  quenched  within 
the  oven  and  increasing  the  percentage  of  moisture  in 
the  coke.     Careful  tests  have  proved  that  retort  coke  is 
somewhat  more  resistant  to  the  action  of  hot  carbonic 
acid  in  the  top  of  the  furnace  than  is  beehive  coke  from 
the  same   coal,  which  seems  to  show  that  the  carbon 
glaze  has  in  practice  no  value.     The  absence  of  a  glaze 
on  retort  coke  is  no  indication  that  carbon  is  not  de- 
posited from  the  gases,  for  in  the  fiKSt  place  the  yield  of 
coke  is  always  higher  than  the  so-called  "theoretical" 
yield,  and  in  the  second  place,  as  the  coke  is  leaving  the 
oven  the  glaze  can  plainly  be  seen,  but  its  brightness  is 
destroyed  by  the    water.     A   long  series  of  tests   have 
shown  that  coke  properly  quenched  outside  of  the  oven 
need  not  contain  over  i  to  f  per  cent,  of  moisture,  but 
the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  coke  after  its  arrival  at 
the  furnace  is  altogether  another  question,  and  depends 
more  on  the  time  it  is  on  the  road  and  on  the  humidity 
of  the  atmosphere  than  on  the  method  of  quenching. 

The  effect  of  moisture  in  the  upper  part  of  a  blast 
furnace  is  an  open  question.  Experiments  have  heen 
made  by  leading  furnacemen  which  indicate  that  its 
cooling  action  on  the  ascending  gases  saves  the  coke  in 
a  measure  from  solution  in  the  hot  carbonic  acid  and 
permits  more  coke  to  reach  the  zone  of  fusion,  with  the 
result  that  the  fuel  consumption  is  noticeably  lowered. 
The  Connellsville  beehive  coke  is,  perhaps,  thB  most 
perfect  blast  furnace  fuel  in  the  world,  and  it  is  not 
claimed  that  retort  coke  made  from  this  coal  is  a  superior 
fuel  to  the  beehive  product.  But  to  the  gr  eet^tiitum 


ALABAMA  COAL  IN  BY-PRODUCT  OVENS.  131 

nous  coal  fields  of  this  country,  to  which  the  Connells- 
ville  district  does  not  bear  the  relation  of  one  to  the 
hundred,  tho  retort  oven  comes  with  a  promise  of  help. 
Many  coals  that,  although  pure  enough  chemically  for 
metallurgical  use,  make  a  soft  coke  in  the  beehive  oven, 
when  coked  in  the  retort  oven  give  a  structure  so  hard- 
ened and  strengthened  that  the  product  is  an  entirely 
acceptable  metallurgical  fuel.  in  other  cases,  when 
the  impurities  are  too  great  for  furnace  or  foundry  use, 
oi%  the  structure  is  hopelessly  weak,  or  when  the  coal  is 
dry  and  lies  dead  in  the  beehive  without  a  suggestion  of 
coking,  a  coke  can  often  be  made  in  the  retort,  oven  that 
is  easily  salable  for  domestic  purposes,  brewers-'  and 
m  listers'  use,  and  for  many  other  uses  where  a  clean - 
burning  fuel,  free  from  smoke,  is  desired.  The  demand 
for  coke  for  these  purposes  is  growing  rapidly,  and  the 
supply  of  this  market  should  be  very  profitable ,  in  a 
properly  located  and  designed  plant,  from  which  the  gas 
and  other  by-products  would  have  a  ready  sale. 

The  ability  of  the  retort  oven  to  coke  coals  that  have 
hitherto  been  considered  non-coking,  brings  into'  promi- 
nence the  subject  of  laboratory  tests  of  coals  for  coking 
purposes  and  of  the  coke  made.  A  chemical  analysis  of 
the  coal  or  coke,  while  important,  does  not -fully  indi- 
cate its  value,  and  physical  tests  are  quite  as  important. 

The  coking  qualities  of  a  coal  are  hardly  shown  at  all 
by  an  ordinary  chemical  analysis,  and  an  actual  test  in 
the  oven  is  the  usu.J  method  for  determining  this  point. 
A  laboratory  method  for  making  this  test  has  been  re- 
cently developed  by  Louis  Campredon  in  the  laboratory 
of  the  Vignac  Works,  France.  His  method  is  similar 
to  that  used  in  ascertaining  the  binding  power  of  cement. 
The  principle  is  the  mixing  of  the  coal  -with  an  inert 
body  and  carbonizing  the  mixture  in  a  closed  vessel ;  the 
greater  the  binding  or  coking  power  of  the  coal  the  more 


132  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 

inert  matter  will  it  bind  into  a  solid  mass.  The  prac- 
tical operation  of  the  method  is  as  follows  :  Pulverize 
the  coal  finely,  passing  it  through  a  sieve -of  fine  mesh. 
A  suitable  inert  body  is  a  fine  siliceous  sand  of  uniform 
grain,  but  somewhat  coarser  than  the  coal.  Several 
equal  portions  of  coal  (say  of  1  gin.  each)  are  mixed 
with  variable  weights  of  sand,  and  the  mixtures  are 
heated  to  a  red  heat  in  closed  porcelain  crucibles,  so  as 
to  carbonize  the  coal .  After  cooling ,  either  a  dry  powder 
or  a  more  or  less  hard  coked  mass  is  obtained.  After  a 
few  trials  it  is  easy  to  determine  what  maximum  weight 
of  sand  a  coal  can  bind  together. 

Taking  the  weight  of  coal  as  unity,  the  binding  power 
will  be  given  by  the  weight  of  the  agglomerated  sand. 
The  binding  power  is  nil  for  a  coal  giving  a  powdered 
coke,  and  it  has  been  found  to  be  17  lor  the  most  bind- 
ing coal  yet  tried  by  the  experimenter,  while  pitch  is  20. 
Experiments  by  this  method  show  that  there  is  no  rela- 
tion between  the  proximate  analysis  and  the  binding 
power  of  coals,  confirming  actual  even  experience. 

THE     BY-PRODUCTS. 

These  consist  primarily  of  ammonia,  tar  and  gas,  and 
in  addition  to  the  increased  yield  of  coke  are  the  sources 
of  profit  from  the  by-product  oven  which  are  wholly  lost 
in  the  ordinary  beehive.  Some  retort  ovens,  such  as  the 
Otto-Coppee,  for  example,  are  without  the  by-product 
apparatus,  and  burn  the  gas  to  heat  the  ovens  without 
washing  it.  These  recover  no  ammonia  or  tar,  but  use 
the  excess  gas  for  raising  steam,  evaporating  about  1.5 
pounds  water  per  pound  of  coal  coked.  But  the  by- 
products are  so  easily  saved  and  the  profits  therefrom 
make  such  an  acceptable  addition  to  the  right  side  of 
the  ledger  that  they  can  hardly  be  neglected.  A  brief 
consideration  of  each  one  rnay  be  of  interest. 


ALABAMA  COAL  IN  BY-PRODUCT  OVENS.  133 

Ammonia. — This  substance  is  given  off  from  the  coal 
in  the  oven  very  slowly  at  first,  but  as  the  temperature 
of  the  charge  rises  the  quantity  increases,  and  after  some 
ten  hours  the  evolution  is  quite  rapid.  As  the  coking 
approaches  completion  the  yield  becomes  much  less  and 
stops  altogether,  although  usually  a  quarter  or  more  of 
the  nitrogen  originally  in  the  coal  still  remains  in  the 
coke.  The  yield  of  ammonia  varies  very  much  in  differ- 
ent coal,  and  depends  partly  on  the  amount  of  nitrogen 
and  oxygen  in  the  coal.  It  varies  also  with  the  tem- 
perature at  which  the  coal  is  coked.  Perhaps  the  most 
reliable  method  to  determine  the  yield  from  any  coal,  ex- 
cept by  an  actual  oven  test,  is  by  the  distillation  of  a 
sample  of  the  coal  in  a  small  retort,  under  the  same 
temperature  an  I  conditions  as  are  present  in  the  oven. 
But  the  results  are  liable  to  be  misleading  unless  the 
operation  is  conducted  by  an  experienced  person,  as  it  is 
hard  to  maintain  the  proper  conditions. 

The  ammonia  from  the  ovens  is  collected  in  the  hy- 
draulic main  and  condensers,  along  with  the  tar,  by  the 
cooling  and  scrubbing  of  the  gas.  The  ammonia  occurs 
in  two  forms  in  the  liquor  :  *'  fixed  "  and  "  volatile  ;  ' 
the  former  containing  the  sulphates,  chlorides,  cyanides, 
etc.,  while  the  latter  contains  the  carbonates,  sulphides, 
and,  according  to  some,  free  ammonia.  The  bulk  of  the 
fixed  salts  is  condensed  first  and  the  volatile  later.  The 
ammonia  liquor  is  quite  weak  when  it  is  first  drawn 
from  the  tar,  usually  containing  from  £  to  1  per  cent,  of 
ammonia.  This  weak  liquor  may  be  either  converted 
directly  into  sulphate,  and  sold  as  fertilizer,  or  by  puri- 
fication and  concentration  it  may  be  converted  into  aqua 
ammonia  or  anhydrous  ammonia,  which  is  used  so 
largely  through  the  South  and  elsewhere  in  refrigerat- 
ing and  other  apparatus. 

Ammonia   liquor  was  formerly  valued  by  the  hydo- 


or  THE 

E 

or 


104  GEOLOGICAL  StTOVEt  OS*  ALABAMA. 

meter,  but  this  method  is  deceptive,  as  the  density  of 
the  liquor  is  affected  by  the  condition  in  which  the 
ammonia  occurs.  The  more  accurate  method  is  the  dis- 
tillation of  the  liquor  with  some  caustic  lime  or  soda, 
which  drives  off  all  the  ammonia,  volatile  and  fixed. 
The  distilled  ammonia  is  absorbed  in  standard  acid, 
and  the  excess  of  acid  is  afterward  titrated  with  a 
standard  alkali  solution.  The  yield  of  ammonia  is 
usually  reckoned  as  ammonium  sulphate,  although  it 
may  be  sold  as  liquor  or  sulphate,  or  in  a  more  con- 
centrated form,  according  to  the  market. 

The  yield  of  ammonia  from  the  coals  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Pittsburg  is  from  16  to  22  pounds  of  sulphate 
per  ton  of  coal. 

Tar. — Since  ttie  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas  by 
the  water-gas  process  has  attained  prominence  the  mar* 
ket  for  tar  is  very  much  improved.  Very  large  quanti- 
ties are  used  for  roofing,  paving,  etc.,  and  in  Europe 
much  is  distilled  and  separated  into  pitch  and  the  va- 
rious lighter  oils,  which  are  further  treated  for  the 
almost  endles  number  of  valuable  substances  which  they 
contain.  In  this  country  but  little  of  this  is  done  as 
yet,  and  the  tar  is  used  mainly  for  the  cruder  purposes. 
Properly  developed,  its  manufacture  into  the  more  valu- 
able products  should  yield  very  satisfactory  profits. 
Our'  chemical  manufacturers  are  beginning  to  realize 
this  fact,  and  plants  for  the  distillation  of  tar  are  growing 
in  number  and  in  importance.  The  rapid  increase  of  by- 
product ovens,  and  the  consequent  large  amount  of  tar 
which  will  be  put-  on  the  market  in  the  near  future  makes 
it  necessary  to  find  another  outlet  for  it  than  the  cruder 
uses,  and  it  is  probabje  that  tar  distillation,  will 
be  an  important  industry  in  this  country  before  many 
years. 

The  main  products  of  the  distillation  of  tar  are,  light 


ALABAMA  COAL  tS  £V  FRODtctf  dVKKS.  136 

oil,  croosoto  or  heavy  oil,  naphthalene,  anthracene  and 
pitch.  *i ;..-: 

The  yield  and  quality  of  tar  from  retort  ovens  depend 
on  the  coal  and  also  on  ths  temperature  at  which  the 
distillation  takes  place.  The  tar  from  the  leading  re- 
tort ovens. is  usually  of  excellent  quality  and  commands 
the  bast  price.  The  yield  of  the  coals  in  the  vicinity  of 
Pittsburg  is  from  70  to  80  pounds  per  ton  of  2,000 
pounds  of  coal.  Some  coals  yield  as  much  as  100  pounds 
or  more. 

Gas. — The  gas  that  is  obtained  from  retort  ovens 
is  a  by-product,  the  value  of  which  varies  greatly  with 
the  locality  in  which  the  ovens  are  situated.  When  the 
ovens  are  at  the  coal  mine  the  gas  is  frequently  valuable 
only  for  steam  raising  purposes,  and  at  the  usual  prices 
of  coal  at  the  mines  would  be  worth  but  a  very  few  cents 
per  thousand  fest.  An  intermediate  condition  would  be 
when  the  ovens  are  adjacent  to  an  iron  or  steel  works, 
where  the  gas  could  be  used  for  heating  furnaces,  soak* 
ing  pits,  etc.,  where  it  would  supplant  producer  gas 
being  much  more  conveniently  applied  and  easily  freed 
from  all  impurities.  The  most  favorable  locations  for 
obtaining  a  good  value  for  oven  gas  are  those  adjacent 
to  large  towns,  where  there  is  a  demand  for  illuminat- 
ing or  fuel  gas.  The  discovery  and  use  of  natural  gas 
in  the  country  has  caused  a  great  demand  for  fuel  gas, 
especially  for  domestic  purposes,  and  many  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  dollars  have  been  spent  in  attempt  to  sup- 
ply this  demand.  But  while  these  experiments  have 
been  going  on  the  bee-hive  coke  ovens  of  Pennsylvania 
alone  have  been  quietly  burning  to  waste  nearly  1,000,- 
000,000  feet  a  week  of  a  very  superior  quality  of  fuel 
gas  without  exciting  any  special  attention. 

Cokeoven.  gas  from  properly  managed  retort  oven  is 
approximately  the  same  article  as  that  from  the  retorts 


136  0EOLOGICAL    SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

of  a  gas  house,  the  processes  of  manufacture  being  simi- 
lar. It  usually  contains  rather  less  illuminants,  how- 
ever. Its  quantity  and  composition  vary  with  the  coal 
used  and  the  temperature  of  distillation,  but  made  from 
good  gas  coal  it  may  be  used  for  illuminating  purposes 
after  being  passed  through  the  ordinary  lime  boxes  to 
remove  the  sulphur,  etc.  If  from  the  nature  of  the  coal 
the  illuminating  power  of  the  gas  is  low,  it  can  either 
be  enriched  by  any  of  the  well  known  methods  or  burn- 
ed with  incandescent  burners  or  used  as  a  fuel  gas  ;  for 
the  lack  of  1  or  2  per  cent,  of  illuminants  will  not  appre- 
ciably affect  its  fuel  value. 

In  arranging  and  oven  plant  for  the  supply  of  fuel  or 
illuminating  gas,  it  is  necessary  either  to  provide  a 
holder  of  rather  large  dimensions  or  with  a  smaller 
holder,  to  have  not  less  than,  say,  twenty-five  or  thirty 
ovens,  that  shall  be  drawn  in  rotation  at  approximately 
even  intervals ;  for  in  common  with  other  substances 
containing  hydrocarbons,  when  coal  is  distilled  in  an 
oven  or  elsewhere  the  gases  given  off  are  not  at  all  uni- 
form in  composition,  but  change  constantly  as  the  distil- 
lation progresses. 

The  following  are  analyses  of  retort-ovens  as  from  Eu- 
ropean and  American  coals  : 


TABLE  XIV. 


Nitrogen 
Methane 


_,*—  — 

I. 

—  -rexueiJi 
II. 

jtige    uy 
III. 

IV. 

V. 

acid  

.......       3.0 

0.90 

1.4 

3.27 

•3 

oxide  

8.8 

4.90 

6.5 

7.95 

7.4 

n  

N  58.0 

58.57 

53.37 

52.77 

51.7 

2  4 

5.74 

0.5 

1.99 

5.5 

24.7 

27.56 

36.1 

31.45 

32.3 

3.1 

2.33 

2.2 

2.57 

2.8 

Totals 100.0        100.0        100,0        100.0        100.0 


ALABAMA  COAL  IK  BY-PRODtJCT  OVENS.  137 

It  is  often  asked — what  is  the  difference  between  coke 
oven  gas  and  natural  gas?  This  is  readily  answered  by 
a  comparison  of  the  above  analyses  with  the  following, 
which  is  from  gas  sold  in  Alleghany  and  Pittsburg  by 
the  natural  gas  companies  : 


Carbonic  acid. 0.3  per  cent.     Nitrogen 0.2  per  cent. 

Carbonic  oxide 0.0  Methan ...96.9 

Hydrogen... 0.0         "  Qlefines 0.8 


It  will  be  noticed  that  this  latter  gas  is  almost  pure 
methane,  or  marsh  gas,  while  the  coke  oven  gas  is  prac- 
tically a  mixture  of  methane  with  hydrogen.     The  nat- 
ural gas  of  the  above  analysis  contains  about  980  Brit-^ 
ish  thermal  units  per  cubic  foot,  while  the  coke  oven 
gas  usually  contakis  from  560  to  590  heat  units.     It  is  a 
familiar  fact  to  those  who  have  seen  natural  gas  burned 
for  lighting  purposes  that  the  large  amount  of  methane 
causes  it  to  burn  with  a  smoky  flame,  and  the  light  from 
it  is  therefore  poor,  although  the  proportion  of  olefines 
or  illuminants,  is  not  always  as  small  as  in  the  analy- 
sis given  above.      It  has  been  stated  by  good  authori- 
ties that  when  a  gas  having  such  a  large  proportion  of 
methane  is  burned  in  the  ordinary  way  without  regener- 
ation of  the  air  by  the  products  of  combustion,  that  the 
available  heat  units  are  not  greater  than  those  from  a 
gas  of  similar  composition  to  the  coke  oven  gases  given 
above,  owing  to  the  fact  that  such  a  very  large  amount 
of  air  is  necessary  to  burn  the  methane,  and  the  amount 
of  heat  absorbed  in  bringing  the  inert  nitrogen  up  to  the 
temperature  of  the  combustion  chamber  is  so  great  that 
it  counterbalances  the  superior  heating  value  of  the  gas. 
Of  course,  if  the  heat  carried   away  in  the  products  of 
combustion  were  returned  to  the  furnaces  by  regenera- 
tion, this  loss  would  not  be  nearly  so  great. 


IDfl  GEOLOGICAL  StfftVEtf  O#  ALABAMA. 


The  principle  source  of  luminosity  in  the  gas  is  benzol. 
This  substance  is  separated  from  the  gas  in  some  of  the 
German  by-product  works,  and  is  used  for  the  manu?ao- 
ture  of  the  aniline  colors.  It  is  a  highly  volatile  sub- 
stance, somewhat  similiar  to  the  naptha  products  of 
petroleum  distillation,  and  is  very  difficult  to  transport. 
Its  removal  from  the  gas  renders  the  latter  useless  for 
illuminating  purposes,  but  does  not  materially  affect  its 
fuel  value.  Benzol  is  also  obtained  in  the  distillation  of 
tar,  but  not  in  large  quantities. 

To  sum  up  briefly,  then,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  coking 
of  coal  in.  the  by-product  retort  oven  differs  in  the  re- 
sults obtained  in  the  following  particulars  from  the 
same  operation  in  tho  bee-hive  :  From  tha  bee-hive  oven. 
we  obtain  coke.  The  article  is  of  excellent  quality  if  the 
coal  is  just  adapted  to  the  purpose,  but  the  yield  is  from 
5  to  20  per  cent,  lower  than  the  analysis  of  the  coal 
shows  should  be  gotten. 

In  addition  to  the  coke  there  is  a  great  deal  of  smoke, 
but  those  living  near  the  ovens  hardly  look  on  this  as  a 
valuable  product. 

From  the  by-product  retort  oven,  we  have  coke  again, 
and  always  more  than  the  analysis  of  the  coal  indicates. 
It  has  yet  to  be  proven  that  any  coal  which  makes  good 
bee-hive  coke  will  not  make  equally  good  retort  oven 
coke.  Moreover  an  excellent  metallurgical  coke  can 
be  made  from  many  coals  that  are  worthless  for  the 
bee-hive.  In  fact  it  is  largely  for  this  reason  that  re- 
tort ovens  have  been  so  widely  introduced  in  Conti- 
nental Europe.  In  addition  to  the  increased  yield  of 
coke  we  have  from  a  ton  of  coal,  from  16  to  22  pounds 
of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  from  70  to  100  pounds  of  tar, 
and  from  3,OOU  to  10,000  cubic  feet  of  gas. 

The  manufacture  of  coke  is  about  the  only  metallurgi- 
cal operation  that  we  Americans,  proud  of  our  wonder- 


OOAL  ttf  B 

«•* 

ful  progress  in  all  the  mechanioal  arts,  still  conduct 
after  the  manner  of  our  ancesters  before  the  Revolution- 
ary war.  Let  us  introduce  the  by-product  retort  oven 
into  the  chain  of  iron  manufactir  e,confi  lent  that  it  will 
not  be  unworthy  to  be  linked  with  the  mining  and  haul- 
age of  our  coal  by  electricity,  the  digging  of  oar  ore  by 
steam  shovels,  and  our  blast  furnaces  smelting  700  tons 
of  iron  in  a  day. 

CHAPTER  V. 
Coke  Furnaces. 

The  largest  furnaces  in  Alabama  are  80  feet  high,  and 
19  feet  6  inches  wide  in  the  bosh,  or  widest  part.  The 
greatest  amount  of  pig  iron  ever  made  in  a  furnace  in 
one  day  in  this  State  was  265  tons,*  and  for  its  produc* 
tion  there  were  required  588  tons  of  ore,  62  tons  of 
limestone  and  265  tons  of  coke,  all  of  2,240  Ibs. 

It  is  by  no  means  unusual  for  a  furnace  to  make  200 
tons  of  iron  a  day,  and  for  this  there  would  be  required 
480  tons  of  ore,  280  tons  of  coke,  and  25  tons  of  stone, 
if  the  proper  amount  of  hard  ore  were  used.  The  aver- 
age number  of  tons  of  material  handled  per  ton  of  iron 
made  is  about  4.44  in  coke  furnaces',  so  that  for  the 
835,851  tons  of  coke  pig  iron  made  in  1895,  there  were 
handled  3,711,178  tons  of  material,  of  which  2,089,627 
tons  were  ore,  442,176  tons  were  stone  (limestone  and 
dolomite),  and  1,179,375  tons  were  coke.  These  are 
approximate  figures.  The  amount  of  ore  required  to 
make  a  ton  of  iron  varies  from  2.10  tons  to  2.87  tons, 
the  average  being  close  to  2.50.  The  average  amount 


*This  output  has  been  exceeded  by  about  50  tons  since  the  intro- 
duction of  16  tuyeres. 


140  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

of  coke  used  per  ton  of  iron  made   is  .1.41    tons  of  2240 
pounds,  the  range  being  from  1.16  to  1.60. 

The  average  amount  of  stone  used  per  tou  -of  iron 
made  is  about  0.53  ton,  the  range  being  from  0.10 
to  0.88. 

The  amount  of  each  material  entering  the  furnace  per 
day  is  not  a  matter  of  guess,   or  of  indifference,  but  is 
carefully  determined  from  the  chemical  analysis.     It  is 
customary  to   fill    the*  furnace    and  keep    filling  it    by 
' 'charges,"  each  '  'charge"  being-  composed  for  the  most 
part   of  ore,    coke    and    stone.     Thus,    for   instance,    a 
"charge "-may  be  composed  of  5,600- IDS.  of  coke    10.080 
pounds  of  hard  ore,  -2,749  pounds  of  soft  ore,  and  620 
pounds  of  limestone,  and  the  furnace  will  take  from  80  to 
90  charges  per  day,  and  should  yield  200  tons  of  iron.    The 
proportion  between  the  various  elements  of  the  charge, 
as  well  as  the  total  weight  of  the  charge,  and  the  num- 
ber of  charges  per  day,  are   all   subject  to  change,    but 
unless   there    is    urgent    necessity  the  daily  alterations 
should  be  very    slight.     Having   once    established   the 
proper  burden,  it  is  not  advisable  to   change  it,  nor  is  it- 
necessary  to  do   so  if  the  materials  can  be    provided  in 
sufficient  quantity  and   with  sufficient  regularity,   and 
uniformity  of  composition.     But  changes  of  burden  are 
very  frequently  made,  so  frequently  in  fact  that  the  ne- 
cessity for  them  constitutes  the  greatest   obstacle  in  the 
path  of  successful  furnace  management  in  this  State. 
It  is  the  lion  in  the  way,   unchained   at  that.     In  com- 
paring furnace  practice  in  Alabama  with  furnace  prac- 
tice in    Pennsylvania,    for    instance,   one  is  impressed 
at   the    outset  with  the    frequent   and  in    many   cases 
violent  changes  in   the  burden  in  the    first  place,  and 
in    the    second    with   the   large    tonnage    handled  per 
ton    of   iron.     This  tonnage    is    referrable  to   the   raw 
materials    going  into  the  furnace,  and   to    the   cinder 


CO&E  FURNACES.  141 

which,  of  course,  has  to  be  removed.  This  condition 
of  affairs  will  remain  as  it  is  now  until  better  ore  can 
be  obtained,  as  the  ore  comprises  about  56  per  cent. 
by  weight  of  the  burden,  being  more  than  the  stone 
and  the  fuel  together,  and  is  subject  to  wider  varia- 
tions in  physical  and  chemical  composition  than  cither 
the  stone  or  the  fuel. 

In  discussing  furnace  burdens,  therefore,  it  must  be 
understood  that  we  do  so  with  some  reservations.  To 
present  the  matter  briefly  and  in  a  general  way,  as  be- 
comes the  character  of  this  -publication,  and  yet  truth- 
fully as  far  as  we  shall  go,  is  difficult.  Generalizations 
can  be  accepted  only  with  the  grain  of  salt,  and  should 
be  based  on  a  certain  set  of  conditions.  Given  these  we' 
may  derive  valuable-information,  but  to  utilize  them  to 
the  best  advantage  one  must  know  more  than  appears  on 
the  surface. 

It  may  be  advisable  to  take  up  the  subject  first  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  coke  furnace,  and  then  discuss, 
briefly,  the  charcoal  practice. 

We  will  divide  the  coke  practice  into  two  main  heads  : 

1st.  Burdens  composed,  so  far  as  concerns  the  ore, 
of.  hard  ore  and  soft  ore,  the  proportion  of  the  hard. ore 
rising  from  48.2  per  cent,  to  100  per  cent. 

2d.  Burdens  composed,  so  far  as  concerns  the  ore,  of 
lard  ore,  soft  ore,  and  brown  ore,  the  proportion  of 
brown  ore  rising  from  1 .30  to  100  per  cent. 

1st.  Burdens  composed,  so  far  as  concerns  the  ore,  of 
hard  ore  and  soft  ore,  the  proportion  of  hard  ore  rising 
from  48.2  per  cent,  to  100  per  cent. 

In  order  that  the  samo  basis  of  comparison  may  be 
used,  we  have  taken  the  delivery  prices  of  the  raw  ma- 
terials as  follows  : 

Per -ton  of  2,240  Ibs. 

Hard  ore. ., 67.5  cts.  per  ton. 

Soft  ore. 55.4    " 

Limestone. 63.4    " 

Coke ,  .$1.75   "          " 


142  GEOtOGICAt  stBVEY  OF 

These  prices  are  very  close  to  the  averages  for  ship- 
ments during  1895. 

The  table  that  has  been  prepared  is  based  on  actual 
furnace  records,  and  comprises  results  obtained  from 
the  examination  of  82,v»17  charges,  the  amount  of  pig 
iron  represented  being  50,360  tons.  The  years  selected 
were  1889,  1890,  1893,  1894  and  1895.  The  tons  re- 
ferred to  are  of  2,240  Ibs.  The  table  includes  the  year, 
the  private  number,  the  number  of  monthly  charges, 
the  percentage  composition  of  the  ore  burden  and  of  the 
total  burden;  the  iron  made,  per  charge,  and  for  each 
month,  and  the  percentage  of  foundry  grades  (including 
F.  F.  or  4  F.,  but  excluding  gray,  forge,  mottled  and 
white);  the  consumption  of  ore,  stone  and  coke  in  tons 
per  ton  of  iron  made  ;  the  cost  of  the  ore,  the  stone  and 
the  coke  per  ton  of  iron  ;  the  percentage  distribution 
of  this  cost ;  and  the  pounds  of  coke  required  to  make 
a  pound  of  iron.  The  calculations  have  been  some- 
what laborious  but  the  results  are  extremely  interest- 
ing and  important.  They  do  not  cover  as  much  ground 
as  could  be  wished,  but  the  pressure  of  other  matters 
compelled  an  abridgement  of  the  original  plan. 

We  will  give  a  table  of  results  from  the  same  furnaces, 
consecutive  months  and  at  certain  intervals.  It  con- 
tains .the  results  of  32,917  charges,  and  50,360  tons  of 
iron. 

Each  horizontal  line  of  figures  represents  monthly  re- 
turns Four  furnaces  are  represented,  the  ore,  stone 
and  coke  being  the  same  for  any  one  furnace  during 
the  period,  and  all  tons  of  2,240  pounds. 


tftirJ  ACE'S. 


143 


TABLE  XV.—  ILLUSTRATIVE  OF  COKE  FURNACE  PRACTICE  WITH  HARD  AND  SOFT  RED  ORE. 

Increasing  percentage  of  Hard  Ore  in  Ore  Burden  of  Hard  and  Soft.  Delivery  Prices:  Hard, 

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144 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


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COKE  FURNACES.  145 

A  critical  examination  of  this  table  will  show  : 

1st.  The  amount  of  ore  used  per  ton  of  iron  made  in- 
creases with  the  per  centage  of  hard  ore  in  the  burden, 
rising  from  2.39  tons  with  ^1  per  cent,  to  2.52  tons  with 
66  per  cent.,  and  2.78  tons  with  90  per  cent. 

2d.  The  amount  of  limestone  used  per  ton  of  iron 
made  decreases  with  the  increase  of  hard  ore,  falling 
from  0.69  ton  with  51  per  cent.,  to  0.45  ton  with  66  per  . 
cent,  and  0.12  ton  with  90, per  cent.  With  50  per  cent, 
of  hard  ore  in  the  ore  burden  the  consumption  of  stone 
is  1545  Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron  made,  with  66  per  cent,  of 
hard  ore  it  is  1008  Ibs.  and  with  90  per  cent,  of  hard  ore 
it  is  269  Ibs.  In  one  furnace  for  a  period  of  three 
months  the  consumption  of  stone  per  ton  of  iron  was 
0.75  ton. 

3d.  The  amount  of  coke  used  per  ton  of  iron  made  in- 
creases with  the  increase  of  hard  ore,  rising  from 
1.34  ions  witji  51  per  cent,  to  1.57  with  66  per  cent,  and 
1.61  with  90  per  cent.  In  the  case  of  one  furnace  car- 
rying 50.6  per  cent,  hard  the  consumption  of  coke  per 
ton  of  iron  made  for  a  period  of  three  months  was  1.52 
tons. 

Coke  is  always  the  most  costly  ingredient  of  the  bur- 
den. In  the  table  under  discussion  it  does  not  fall  be- 
low 53  per  cent,  of  total  raw  material  cost  per  ton 
of  iron.  The  tendency  towards  increasing  consumption 
of  coke  with  increasing  amounts  of  hard  ore  leads,  there- 
fore, to  increase  cost  for  raw  materials  to  a  ton  of 
iron. 

The  consumption  of  coke  per  ton  of  iron,  the  quality 
of  the  coke,  ore  and  stone  being  the  same,  depends 
to  a  very  great  extent  upon  the  amount  of  air  and  its 
pressure  and  temperature,  which  is  blown  into  the  fur- 
nace per  unit  of  time.  Instances  are  on  record  in  Ala- 
bama where  the  consumption  of  coke  per  ton  of  iron 
10 


146         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

with  very  heavy  lime  burdens  over  considerable  periods 
did  not  exceed  1.25  tons,  but  the  furnace  was  well  equip- 
ped as  to  boilers,  engines  and  stoves.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances it  has  been  said  by  one  of  the  best  furnace- 
men  in  the  Birmingham  district  that  he  could  use  all 
hard  ore  (of  the  best  self-fluxing  type)  and  make  iron 
with  1.25  tons  of  coke  without  impairing  the  quality  of 
the  iron. 

It  must,  however,  be  said  that  the  use  of  crushed  hard 
ore  tends  to  diminish  the  consumption  of  coke,  for  hard 
ore  in  large  lumps  is  not  easily  penetrated  by  the 
reducing  gases.  When  a  large  piaca,  weighing  from 
50  to  75  Ibs.  is  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  furnace  in 
descending  the  outside  of  it  is  first  effected.  The  car- 
bonic acid  is  removed,  the  oxide  of  iron  begins  to  part 
with  its  oxygen,  and  processes  of  disintegration  are  set 
up  which  continue  until  the  ore  is  broken  into  small 
fragments. 

It  may  be  assumed  that  the  oxide  of  iron  is  not  com- 
pletely reduced  until  each  piece  is  exposed  to  the  deox- 
idizing gases.  This  takes  place  with  comparative  rapid- 
ity if  the  ore  is  porous,  as  with  certain  kinds  of  brown 
ore,  or  if  the  fragments  of  ore  are  sufficiently  small. 
They  must  not  be  too  small,  else  the  current  of  gas  is 
checked,  the  burden  packs  and  the  furnace  "hangs." 
But  if  the  size  of  the  ore  particles  be  small  enough  to 
allow  of  easy  gas-penetration  while  not  so  small  as  to 
cause  irregularities  in  the  descent  of  the  burden,  we 
should  have  comparatively  favorable  conditions  for  re- 
duction. It  would  appear  that  the  hard  ore  has  a  two- 
fold advantage  over  the  soft  ore,  first  as  regards  the  ad- 
mixture of  lime  for  making  a  self-fluxing  ore,  and 
second  in  having  the  lime  combined  with  carbonic  acid. 
The  first  advantage  renders  possible  the  saving  of  ex- 
traneous lime.  Using  80  per  cent,  of  hard  ore  and  20 


COKE  FURNACES.  l'±7 

percent,  of  soft  ore  in  the  ore  burden  there  are  required 
582  Ibs.  of  limestone,  as  against  1,680  Ibs.  for  50  per 
cent,  hard  and  50  per  cent,  soft,  a  saving  of  31  cents 
per  ton  of  iron  in  favor  of  the  heavier  hard  ore  burden. 
This  saving,  however,  may  be  more  than  counterbal- 
anced by  the  greater  amount  of  ore  and  coke  required 
in  the  heavier  hard  ore  burden.  It  may  not  be  possible 
to  obtain  better  ore,  i.  e.,  so  far  as  concerns  its  iron-con- 
tent, but  it  can  be  improved  by  crushing.  Crushing 
does  not  increase  the  amount  of  iron,  but  it  does  increase 
the  reducibility  of  the  ore  by  enabling  the  gases  from 
the  coke  to  act  upon  a  larger  surface  of  iron-bearing  ma- 
terial. It  does  more  than  this.  It  furthers  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  ore,  and  this.renders  the 
ore  more  porous. 

Crushing  and  calcination  have  a  common  purpose, 
viz.,  to  increase  the  reiucibility  of  the  ore  by  increasing 
the  amount  of  iron-bearing  surface  exposed  to  the  reduc- 
ing agencies. 

The  use  of  crushed  hard  ore  is  rapidly  extending  in 
Alabam  i,  and  it  will  not  be  Ion:*  before  t!i3  advantages 

o  o 

attending  it  use  will  force  themselves  upon  those  who 
seem  at  present  to  be  indifferent  to  the  matter. 

In  a  paper  on  "Large  Furnaces  on  Alabama  Material," 
(Transactions  American  Institute  Mining  Engineers,  Vol. 
XVII,  p.  141.  1839).  Mr.  F.  W.  Gordon  said  that  the 
results  at  Ensley  proved  the  possibility  of  making  a 
pound  of  iron  with  a  pound  of  coke.  Since  that  time 
and  with  a  better  coke  thai  was  thon  used  it  has  hap- 
pened for  a  day  or  so  that  a  pound  of  coke  mide  a  pound 
of  iron,  but  the  coke  iron  that  has  been  made  in  the 
Birmingham  district  with  a  ton  of  coke  per  ton  of  iron 
is  insignificent  in  amount,  and  there  is  no  reasonable 
expectation  that  it  will  be  increased  in  our  day.  The 


148          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  of  ALABAMA. 

present  consumption  for  the  best  coke  is  1.34  Ibs.  per 
pound  of  iron. 

If  any  hopes  were  entertained  as  to  the  possibility  of 
any  one  of  the  Ensley  furnace  making  a  pound  of  iron 
with  a  pound  of  coke  even  for  a  week  at  a  time  they 
must  long  since  have  been  abandoned  in  the  cold  light 
of  facts. 

4th.  The  tendency  of  the  percentage  of  foundry  grades 
of  iron  is  towards  a  decrease  with  the  increase  of  hard 
ore.  While  this  is  not  strongly  accentuated  still  it  ap- 
pears to  be  too  evident  to  be  neglected .  Individual  cases 
may  be  cited  wherein  the  percentage  production  of  foun- 
dry grades  during  a  month  was  higher  when  the  per- 
centage of  hard  ore  rose  to  80  per  cent,  than  when  it  was 
at  52  per  cent.,  as  by  numbers  34  and  20.  But  on  the 
other  hand  when  tlie  ore  burden  was  composed  entirely 
of  hard  ore,  as  in  No.  33,  the  percentage  of  foundry  grades 
touched  its  lowest  point,  viz.,  59.4. 

The  influence  of  increasing  amounts  of  hard  ore  'on 
the  quality  of  the  iron  is  of  the  utmost  importance  iu  the 
discussion  of  this  subject.  Too  much  stress  can  not  be 
put  on  it,  for  it  determines  the  price  at  which  the  pro- 
duct must  be  sold.  The  higher  the  percentage  yield  of 
foundry  irons  the  more  valuable  is  the  output.  Any 
thing,  therefore,  that  tends  to  interfere  with  the  make 
of  foundry  iron  should  be  most  carefully  investigated, 
and  conclusions  drawn  from  authentic  records  must  be 
the  chief  evidence. 

Thirteen  cases  have  been  examined,  the  number  of 
charges  being  82,917,  and  the  amount  of  iron  50,360 
tons.  Three  cases  in  which  the  percentagejof  hard  ore 
in  the  ore  burden  was  50.9  per  cent.,  50.9  per  cent,  and 
52.3  shows  the  following  percentages  of  foundry  grades 
respectively,  99.2  per  cent.,  96. 2  per  cent. ,'^90. 2  percent., 
the  average  being  95.2  per  cent. 


COKE  FURNACES.  149 

The  total  number  of  charges  was  8,853,  and  the  total 
iron  made  14,798  tons. 

Four  cases  in  which  the  percentage  of  hard  ore  in  the 
ore  burden  was  48.2,  50.9,  51.1,  and  52.3,  show  percent- 
ages of  foundry  grades,  respectively,  83.9,  68.3,  88.6,  and 
87.0,  the  average  being  81.9.  The  number  of  charges 
was  11,325,  aad  the  iron  made  16,845  tons. 

In  these  cases  the  average  percentage  of  frard  ore  in 
the  ore  burden  was  50.6,  as  against  51.3  in  the 
first  case,  while  the  average  percentage  of  foundry 
grades  was  81.9,  as  against  95.2.  While  there  was  a 
very  small  difference  between  these  two  cases  in  respect 
of  the  amount  of  hard  ore  used  there  was  a  marked  dif- 
ference in  the  percentage  of  foundry  grades  made,  95.2 
per  cent,  and  81.9  per  cent. 

Three  cases  were  examined  in  each  of  which  the  per- 
centage of  hard  ore  in  the  ore  burden  was  65.9.  In 
one  of  them  with  1,508  charges  and  2,070  tons  of  iron* 
the  percentage  of  foundry  grades  was  95.7.  In  another 
with  1,343  charges  and  2,61  >  tons  of  iron  the  percentage 
of  foundry  grades  was  87.8.  In  the  third  with  1,512 
charges  and  2,898  tons  of  iron  the  percentage  of  foun- 
dry grades  was  93.2.  The  average  of  4, .{63  charges  and 
8,483  tons  of  iron  was,  in  foundry  grades,  92.2  per 
cent. 

Finally,  three  cases  were  examined  in  which  the  per- 
centage of  hard  ore  in  the  ore  burden  rose  from  80.7  to 
100.  In  one  of  these  with  80.7  per  cent,  hard  there  were 
1,805  charges,  3  315  tons  of  iron,  and  93.8  per  cent,  of 
foundry  grades.  In  another  with  91.5  per  cent.  3ia"d 
there  were  1,995  charges,  3,901  tons  of  iron,  and  83.9 
per  cent,  foundry  grades.  In  the  third  with  100  per 
cent,  of  hard  there  were  1,576  charges,  3,005  tons  of 
iron  ,  and  59.4  per  cent,  of  foundry  grades. 

Averaging  the  results  from  the  two  furnaces  carrying 


150          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

about  50  per  cent,  of  hard  ore  in  the  ore  burden  we  find 
that  with  20,178  charges  and  31,643  tons  of  iron  the  per- 
centage of  foundry  grades  was  88.5. 

Comparing  this  with  the  results  from  the  furnace  car- 
rying 65.9  per  cent,  of  hard  ore,  with  4, 363  charges,  8,483 
tons  of  iron  and  92.2  per  cent,  foundry  grades,  there 
seems  to  be  an  advantage  of  3.7  per  cent,  foundry  grades 
for  the  higher  percentage  of  hard  ore. 

Taking  these  two  together  and  comparing  with  them 
the  results  from  the  burden  averaging  90  per  cent,  of 
hard  ore  there  is  found  to  be  a  decided  falling  off  in  the 
percentage  of  foundry  grades. 

Perhaps  ail  that  can  now  be  said  is  that  there  seems 
to  be  a  tendency  towards  inferior  grades  of  iron  when 
the  percentage  of  hard  ore  in  the  ore  burden  passes  66. 
The  smaller  the  yield  of  iron  from  the  furnace  the  higher 
is  the  percentage  of  foundry  grades,  and  this  seems  to 
be  independent  of  the  amount  of  hard  ore  carried.  Out 
of  8  cases  in  which  the  monthly  yield  was  between  3,900 
and  5,000  tons  there  were  37.5  per  cent,  in  which  the 
yield  of  foundry  grades  fell  below  87  per  cent.  In  5  cases 
in  which  the  monthly  yield  was  between  2,500  and  3, 500 
tons  there  was  only  1,  or  20  per  cent,  in  w^hich  the  per- 
centage of  foundry  grades  fell  below  87. 

Whether  we  may  conclude  from  this  that  rapid  driving 
on  a  hard  ore  burden  tends  to  lower  grades  of  iron  is  not 
quite  clear.  Provided  that  the  furnace  has  sufficient 
engine  power  to  furnish  the  requisite  blast  and  stoves 
enough  to  furnish  the  requisite  heat  there  does  not  see  in 
to  be  any  good  reason  why  she  should  not  work  off  on 
foundry  grades  satisfactorily,  even  with  a  very  heavy 
hard  ore  burden.  But  to  attempt  to  make  high  grade 
iron  with  hard  ore  (limy)  burdens  and  insufficient  blast,. 
or  heat  is  apt  to  cause  numerous  disappointments. 


_  COKE  FURNACES.  151 

ORE  BURDENS  COMPOSED  OF  HARD,  SOFT  AND  BROWN 
ORE,  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  BROWN  RISING  FROM  1.3  PER 
CENT.  TO  100  PER  CENT. 

The  table  embodies  the  results  from  40,270  charges, 
and  66,653  tons  of  iron.  The  delivery  prices  for  the  raw 
materials  are  as  follows,  per  ton  of  2,240  Ibs. 

Hard   ore 67.5  cents . 

Soft  ore.  . 55.4     " 

Brown  ore 1.00       " 

Coke 1.75       " 

They  are  the  same  as  for  the  table  giving  the  results 
from  ore  burdens  of  hard  and  soft  ore,  except  that,  in  addi- 
tion we  have  brown  ore. 

They  are  not  assumed  prices  but  such  as  was  actually 
paid  in  the  Birmingham  District  during  1895.  Three 
furnaces  are  represented,  the  ore,  stone  and  coke  being 
the  same  for  any  one  furnace  during  the  period.  Each 
horizontal  line  of  figures  represents  monthly  returns  : 


152 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


TABLE  XVI—  ILLUSTRATIVE  OF  COKE  FURNACE  PRACTICE  WITH  HARD  AND  SOFT  RED 
Oi(E  AND  BROWN  ORE. 

Increasing  Percentage  of  Brown  Ore  in  Burden  of  Hard,  Soft  and  Brown.  Delivery  Prices:  Hard,  67.5  cts  ;  Soft,  55.4  cts.  ; 
Brown,  $1.00;  Stone,  63  4  ct».  ;  Coke  $1.75.  Tons  of  2,  240  Ibs. 
Same  Furnace.  Consecutive  Months. 

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COKE  FURNACES, 


153 


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154 


GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA  . 


TABLE  XVI—  ILLUSTRATIVE  OF  COKE  FURNACE  PRACTICE  WITH  HARD  AND  SOFT  RED 
ORE  AND  BROWN  ORE. 

Increasing  Percentage  of  Brown  Ore  in  Burden  of  Hard,  Soft  and  Brown,  Delivery  Prices:  Hard,  67  5  cts.  ;  Soft,  55.4  cts.  ; 
Brown,  $1.00;  Stone,  63.4  cts.;  Coke,  $1.75.  Tons  of  2,240  Ibs. 

Same  Furnace.  Consecutive  Months. 

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Iron. 

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COKE  FURNACES.  155 

A  careful  examination  of  the  table  will  show  : 
1st.     The  amount  of  brown  ore    used  per  ton  of  iron 
made  varies  from  2.28  to  2.49  tons.     In    1880  the  brown 
'   ore  was  not  as  good  as  in  1891  and   1895,  and  the  con- 
sumption of  ore  per  ton  of  iron  rose  to  2.49  tons,  al- 
though the  average  percentage  of  brown    ore  in  the  ore 
burden  was  16  3. 

With  44. 1  per  cent,  of  hard,  52.1  per  cent,  of  soft  and 
3.8 "per  cent,  of  brown  the  comsumption  of  materials  per 
ton  of  iron  was  as  tons  : 

Ore 2.28 

Stone '. 0.74 

Coke..  .1.38 


#4.40 
and  the  cost  of  the  material  was  : 

Ore $1.43 

Stone 0.47 

Coke 2.39 

$4.29 
When  the  proportions  were  :  PER  CENT. 

Hard 58.6 

Soft 25.1 

Brown : i6.3 

the  consumption  of   material  was,   in    tons    per    ton    of 
iron  : 

Ore 2.49 

Stone 0.42 

Coke 1.56 

4.47 
and  the  cost  per  ton  of  iron  was  : 

Ore $1.73 

Stone 0.25 

Coke 2.77 

$4.75 


156         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

When  the  proportions  were  : 

Hard 16.1 

Soft , 23.1 

Brown 60.8 

the  consumption,  in  tons  per  of  iron,  was  : 

Ore 2.41 

Stone 0.87 

Coke. 1.30 

and  the  cost  per  ton  of  iron  was  : 

Ore $2 .03 

Stone 0.55 

Coke..  2.29 


$4.87 

2d.  The  amount  of  limestone  used  per  ton  of  iron 
varies  according  to  the  amount  of  hard  ore  used,  being 
0.42  ton  with  58  per  cent.  0.74  ton  with  44  per  cent!,  and 
0.87  ton  with  16  per  cent.  It  may  be  instructive  to  com- 
pare these  figures  with  corr-  spending  results  from  an  ore 
burden  of  hard  and  soft.  "With  48  per  cent,  hard  in  such 
a  burden,  which  is  the  nearest  to  44  per  cent,  as  above, 
the  consumption  of  stone  in  tons  per  ton  of  iron  was 
0.79,  as  against  0.74  with  44  per  cent,  of  hard  in  a  bur- 
den carrying  brown  ore.  The  nearest  figure  in  the  hard- 
soft  burden  to  the  58  per  cent,  hard  in  the  hard  soft 
brown  burden  is  65.9  percent;.,  and  this  required  0.45  ton 
of  stone  per  ton  of  iron,  as  against  0.42  ton  in  the  brown 
ore  burden  carrying  58  per  cent,  of  hard  ore. 

It  is  Important  to  note  that  a  hard  ore  burden  with 
100  per  cent,  of  hard  required  no  stone,  while  in  the 
brown  ore  burden  with  100  per  cent,  of  brown  the 
amount  of  stone  required  per  ton  of  iron  was  0.87  ton, 
the  highest  consumption  of  stone  to  be  observed  in  these 
tables. 


COKE  FURNACES.  157 

3d.  The  amount  of  coke  used  per  ton  of  iron  decreases 
with  the  increase  of  brown  ore,  except  in  the  case  of  the 
furnace  in  operation  in  1890,  and  using  58.6  per  cent,  of 
hard  ore.  In  this  case  the  consumption  of  coke  was  much 
in  excess  of  the  returns  for  1894  and  1895,  and  the  gen- 
eral increase  of  coke  with  increase  of  hard  ore  is  borne 
out  also  by  this  table. 

4th.  The  percentage  production  of  foundry  iron,  from 
brown  ore  burdens  is  impaired  by  increasing  the  amount 
of  hard  ore.  With  44  per  cent,  of  hard  and  3. 8  per  cent, 
of  brown  ore  the  average  percentage  of  foundry  grades 
was  97  2.  With  58  per  cent,  hard  and  16  per  cent, 
brown  it  was  88.2  per  cent,  With  16  per  cent,  hard  and 
60  per  cent,  brown  it  was  96.9. 

As  might  be  expected  from  the  more  complex  nature  of 
the  burden  the  admixture  of  hard,  soft  and  brown  ores 
gives  rise  to  greater  variations  in  the  economies  of  pro- 
duction than  in  the  case  with  burdens  of  hard  and  soft 
ore.  The  variations  are  traceable  to  the  fluctuations  in 
the  quality  of  brown  ore,  for  they  exhibit  wider  ranges 
of  composition  than  either  the  hard  or  the  soft  ore. 
Then  again  in  physical  qualities  they  are  apt  to  show 
rapid  oscillations.  The  condition  in  which  brown  ore 
from  the  same  mine  and  washer  reaches  the  stockhouse 
has  to  be  observed  personally  before  one  can  fully  ap- 
preciate what  these  may  be,  and  often  are.  When  the 
brown  ore  "bank"  is  in  fairly  good  ore,  and  the  clay  is 
easily  disintegrated,  and  water  is  abundant  the  ore 
comes  in  clean.  When  the  clay  is  "tough,"  the  ore  cherty, 
and  the  water  scanty,  the  ore  comes  in  wet,  and  serious- 
ly hampered  with  clay,  or  with  too  much  insoluble  mat- 
ter. 

In  spite,  however,  of  these  obstacles,  which  at  times 
may  cause  trouble,  the  fact  remains  that  the  use  of 
brown  ore  is  highly  advantageous.  There  are  very  few 


158  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 

furnaces  that  are  not  glad  to  get  it,  and  now  and  then  to 
pay  a  good  deal  more  than  $1 .00  per  ton  for  it. 

Instances  are  on  record  where  as  much  as  $1.50  per 
ton  has  been,  paid  in  the  Birmingham  District  for  brown 
ore  of  55  per  cent,  iron,  although  the  average  price  is 
much  lower.  Good  brown  ore  always  commands  a  ready 
sale  at  fairly  remunerative  prices. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  furnaces  that  are  not  fa- 
vorably located  with  respect  to  hard  and  soft  ore,  but 
are  within  easy  reach  of  brown  ore,  the  proportion  of 
brown  ore  used  in  the  coke  frunaces  rarely  exceeds  25 
per  cent,  and  for  the  most  part  is  not  above  20  per  cent. 
The  ore  burden  is  arranged  in  various  ways,  50  per  cent, 
hard,  25  per  cent,  soft  and  25  per  cent,  brown  ;  40  per 
cent,  hard,  45  per  cent,  soft  and  15  per  cent,  brown  ;  &c- 
&c. 

Under  special  conditions,  such  as  a  large  order  from 
pipe- works,  &c.  the  proportion  of  brown  ore  is  increased 
until  the  ore  burden  may  be  composed  entirely  of  it. 
But  by  far  the  greater  amount  of  iron  made  from  bur- 
dens carrying  brown  ore  is  made  with  about  20  per 
cent,  of  browa,  hand  picked,  and  washed  but  not  cal- 
cined. 

The  practice  could  be  greatly  benefited  by  using  wash- 
ed and  calcined  ore  but  so  far  as  is  known  not  a  single 
coke  furnace  is  in  operation  on  this  kind  of  material, ex- 
clusively or  in  admixture  with  hard,  and  soft  ore. 

What  has  been  said  as  to  furnace  burdens  is  true  in  a 
general  way,  It  is  not  our  purpose  now  to  go  into  the 
details  of  furnace  practice,  n)r  to  discuss  the  manner  in 
which  the  raw  materials  may  be  used  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. This,  after  all.  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of 
the  furnace  manager,  which  in  turn  is  based  on  actual 
experience  under  varying  conditions.  It  not  infrequent- 
ly happens  that  one  man  will  take  the  same  materials 
and  the  same  furnace  and  produce  better  iron  at  a  less 
cost  than  another,  whose  theoretical  knowledge  may  be 


COKE  FURNACES.  159 

of  the  best  but  whose  practical  acquaintance  with  the  art 
of  making  iron  has  not  qualified  him  to  manage  a  fur- 
na  successfully. 

There  are  excellent  furnace-men  whose  knowledge  of 
the  difference  between  silicon  and  silica  is  somewhat 
hazy,  and  who  would  find  it  extremely  tiresome  to  cal- 
culate the  cubical  area  of  a  furnace,  They  have  ac- 
quired their  information  by  hard  knocks  and  the  exercise 
of  common-sense  and  a  tenacious  memory.  We  have 
in  mind  now  a  good  furnace-man  who  will  probably  die 
in  the  belief  that  carbonic  acid  is  a  combustible  mate- 
rial, and  who  could  not  calculate  the  formula  of  a  cinder 
containing  50  lime,  35  silica  and  15  alumina  if  he  was 
to  suffer  decapitation  the  next  day. 

Iron  nr  king  is  nofc  only  a  science,  it  is  an  art,  and 
one  too  calling  for  the  constant  display  of  very  consid- 
erable knowledge  and  skill,  and  of  untiring  patience. 

So  long  as  the  furnace  is  working  satisfactorily  all  is 
well,  but  to  know  what  to  do  and  when  to  do  it  in  case 
something  goes  wrong,  this  is  what  makes  or  mars  the 
furnace  manager. 

A  furnace  may  work  along  weeks  at  a  time  on  the 
same  burden  and  produce  its  normal  quantity  of  iron, 
and  that  of  a  good  quality,  when  some  subtle  change 
may  take  place,  discernible  only  by  an  experienced  eye, 
and  what  is  to  be  done  must  be  done  at  once. 

There  is  one  circumstance  in  connection  with  iron 
making  in  Alabama  that  renders  the  daily  life  of  a  fur- 
nace-man  anything  but  ''skittles  and  beer."  It  is  the 
wide  and  at  times  rapid  variation  in  the  quality  of  the 
raw  materials.  The  coke  is  of  fairly  uniform  composi- 
tion, but  the  ore  is  often  quite  irregular. 

There  lie  before  us  certain  furnace  records  giving  the 
daily  charges  of  ore,  stone  and  coke  over  a  considerable 
period.  We  will  take  a  certain  month  when  the  make 


160  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

of  iron  was  5,719  tons,  77  per  cent,  being  foundry  grades. 
There  were  used  2,503  charges,  during  the  month,  a 
daily  average  of  80.7. 

The  furnace  was  using  80  per  cent,  of  hard  ore,  and 
20  per  cent,  of  soft.  During  the  31  days  the  amount  of 
ore  in  tons  per  ton  of  iron  varied  from  2.62  to  2.19,  or 
963  Ibs.  This  was  during  the  entire  month.  From  one 
day  to  the  next  there  were  differences  of  600  Ibs.  of  ore 
per  ton  of  iron.  In  other  words,  if  the  furnace  could 
have  been  charged  every  day  with  ore  carrying  45.6  per 
cent,  of  iron,  as  was  the  case  on  one  day,  the  yield  of 
iron  in  the  month  could  have  been  6,620  tons  instead  of 
5,719,  a  difference  in  favor  of  the  better  ore  of  901  tons 
for  the  month.  The  daily  production  of  iron  could  have 
been  213  tons  instead  of  184  tons. 

Furthermore.  Not  only  is  the  daily  yield  of  the  fur- 
nace seriously  hampered  by  such  irregularities  in  the 
ore,  the  percentage  of  foundry  iron  in  the  make  is  also 
lessened,  and  there  are  opportunities  for  an  increased 
consumption  of  coke  and  greater  costs  of  production. 

In  burdening  a  furnace  it  is  in  every  way  better  to 
have  a  leaner  ore  of  regular  composition  than  a  richer 
ore  of  variable  and  varying  composition. 

There  would  be  fewer  and  more  restricted  variations 
in  the  cost  accounts,  and  less  interference  with  the  pro- 
duction of  the  better  grades  of  iron  in  the  one  case  than 
in  the  other. 

The  question  of  securing  ore  of  more  constant  compo- 
sition is  one  that  can  not  be  brought  too  forcibly  to  the 
attention  of  iron  makers  in  Alabama.  It  dominates  all 
other  considerations,  and  is  to-day  the  most  vital  prob- 
lem confronting  them.  No  other  single  question  is  at 
once  so  important  and  so  little  studied,  the  interest  in  it 
seeming  to  be  in  inverse  proportion  to  its  gravity. 

As  a  further  contribution  to  the  study  of  this  subject, 


COKE  FUKNACES.  161 

there  is  given  a  table  showing  what  is  probably  the  best 
practice  with  coke  furnaces  using  brown  ore  ex-clusively. 
The  consumption  of  coke  is  remarkably  low,  being  0.87 
Ib.  per  pound  of  iron,  or  1948  Ibs.  for  2240  Ibs.  of  iron. 
The  percentage  of  foundry  grades  made  was  100,  and 
the  cost  of  raw  materials,  per  ton  of  iron,  was  $4.28. 
The  coke  was  high  in  ash,  15.7  per  cent.,  and  the  lime- 
stone contained  2.0  per  cent,  of  silica. 

The  furnace  was  banked  for  three  days,  and  yet  du- 
ring the  period  made  239  tons  of  iron  per  24  hours. 

This  is  certainly  good  practice,  and  it  is  doubtful  if 
anything  better,  if  indeed  anything  so  good,  has  been 
recorded  in  the  State. 


li 


162 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA 


TABLE  XVII. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  OF  COKE  FURNACE  PRACTICE  WITH  ALL  BROWN  ORE. 

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COKE  FURNACES.  163 

CHARCOAL  FURNACE  BURDENS. 

The  reputation  of  the  charcoal  iron  made  in  the  State 
has  been  most  excellent,  especially  that  of  Shelby  fur- 
naces, and  even  now  in  these  times  of  depression  the 
Shelby  iron  is  sought  for  by  those  who  still  desire  a 
high  grade  charcoal  iron. 

The  charcoal  used  is  made  for  the  most  part  in  the 
old  way,  in  mounds  and  heaps,  the  attempt  to  recover 
by  products  in  specially  constructed  kilns  being  confin- 
ed to  the  Round  Mountain  Company  in  Cheroke  county. 

By  far  the  greater  amount  of  charcoal  iron  is  derived 
from  the  brown  ores,  the  consumption  of  ore  per  ton  of 
iron  being  from  1.80  to  2.03  tons. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  furnace  burdens  in 
good  practice  over  a  period  of  4  months,  with  brown 
ore  : 


164 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA, 


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COKE  FURNACES.  165 

According  to  these  returns  the  average  percentage, 
'furnace  yield,  of  iron  in  these  brown  ores  was  52. $,  the 
average  consumption  of  ore  per  ton  of  iron  being  1.90 
ton ;  the  average  consumption  of  limestone  was  0.33 
ton,  or  739 pounds  ;  and  of  charcoal  100.1  bushels. 

The  ore  was  partly  washed  and  calcined,  partly  mere- 
ly washed,  No.  46  being  washed  and  calcined. 

Investigations  that  have  been  carried  on  for  some 
months,  but  which  are  not  yet  to  be  published,  have 
shown  that  there  is  a  marked  decrease  in  the  amount  of 
charcoal  required  per  ton  of  iron  and  a  decided  increase 
in  the  output  of  the  furnace  consequent  upon  the  use  of 
washed  and  calcined  ore.  This  may  not  appear  from 
the  examination  of  the  returns  of  a  single  month,  as  for 
Instance  in  No.  46.'  "But  after  comparing  the  same  ore 
under  these  different  conditions,  the  other  elements  of 
practice  being  the  same;  there  is  no  room  for  doubt. 

The  charcoal  furnaces  have  the  advantage  over  the 
coke  furnaces  of  much  better  ore,  but  their  fuel  is  far 
more  costly  than  coke,  and  the  percentage  cost  of  the 
fuel  is  considerable  more  than  with  coke  iron. 

Charcoal  iron  is  worth  more  than  coke  iron,  the  pres- 
ent selling  price  being  about  twice  as  much  for  the  one 
as  for  the  other.  The  entire  product  is  consumed  by 
manufacturers  of  car  wheels,  and  those  who  make  a 
specialty  of  tough,  chilled  castings.  In  the  old  days  a 
great  deal  of  charcoal  iron  was  used  in  boiler  plates, 
but  the  increasing  use  of  soft  steel  for  this  purpose  has 
gradually  destroyed  this  business,  and  very  little  of  it 
now  goes  to  boiler  works. 


166  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


CHAPTER  YI. 

PIG  IRON. 

No  Bessemer  iron  is  produced  in  the  State,  as  the  ores 
so  far  exploited  carry  entirely  too  much  phosphorus. 
Putting  the  maximum  phosphorus  allowed  in  Bessemer 
iron  at  0.10  per  cent.,  an  ore  containing  50  per  cent,  of 
iron  and  0.05  per  cent,  of  phosphorus  would  give  pig 
iron  with  0.10  percent,  of  phosphorus.  As  a  rule  the 
ores  used  in  the  State  do  not  contain  as  much  as  50  per 
cent,  of  iron,  for  by  far  the  greater  amount  of  iron  is 
made  from  the  soft  red  and  the  limy  ores  of  less  rich- 
ness. There  are  brown  ores  that  carry  50  per  cent,  of 
iron,  and  even  more,  but  with  the  exception  of  the 
furnaces  at  Shelby,  Anniston,  Round  Mountain  and 
Sheffield,  with  a  maximum  yearly  capacitv  of  about 
200,000  tons,  there  are  no  furnaces  using  brown  ore  ex- 
clusively. The  brown  ores  in  actual  use  carry  not  less 
than  0.30  per  cent,  of  phosphorus,  and  taking  their  con- 
tent of  iron,  on  the  average,  at  52  per  cent.,  there  would 
be  found  in  the  pig  iron  not  less  than  0.47  per  cent,  of 
phosphorus,  nearly  five  times  as  much  as  the  maximum 
allowed  in  Bessemer  iron.  When  it  comes  to  mixing 
brown  ore  with  soft  and  limy  (hard)  fossil  ores,  as  is 
the  usual  practice,  the  actual  amount  of  iron  in  the  ore 
as  charged  is  dependent  on  the  proportions  of  the  vari- 
ous ores  used.  It  certainly  will  not  exceed,  on  the  aver- 
age, 44  per  cent.,  i.t'  indeed  it  be  not  nearer  42  per  cent. 
With  0.30  per  cent,  of  phosphorus  in  the  ore  burden, 
this  would  mean  at  least  0.68  per  cent,  of  phosphorus  in 


PIG  IRON.  167 

the  iron.  There  is  not  much  iron  made  in  the  State 
that  carries  less  than  0.70  per  cent,  of  phosphorus,  and 
the  lowest  phosphorus  that  any  iron-producing  company 
would  be  warranted  in  specifying  would  be  0.75  percent. 

There  are  some  brown  ores  near  Talladega,  belonging 
to  the  Alpine  Mountain  district,  that  have  been  shown 
to  carry  less  than  0.05  per  cent,  phosphorus  per  50  per 
cent,  of  iron.  Several  years  ago  the  furnace  at  Talla- 
dega contracted  to  supply  Bessemer,  iron  made  from 
these  ores,  to  a  Pennsylvania  steel  company,  and  some 
3000  tons  were  shipped.  But  for  some  reason  the  en- 
terprise languished,  and  has  not  been  revived.  It  is 
almost  a  hopeless  undertaking  to  make  Bessemer  iron 
from  these  ores.  In  places  they  are  very  low  in  phos- 
phorus and  great  expectations  have  been  based  on  them. 
But  they  are  variable  in  phosphorus,  showing  here  very 
low  phosphorus,  there  a  good  deal  more,  and  at  no  great 
distance  0.10  per  cent.,  0.20  per  cent.,  and  0.30  per  cent. 
They  are  very  good  ores,  so  far  as  their  content  of  iron 
is  concerned,  but  the  phosphorus  is  liable  to  great  varia- 
tions, and  on  this  account  they  can  not  be  successfully 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  Bessemer  iron. 

Now  and  then  attention  is  directed  anew  to  some 
seam,  or  deposit  of  ore  that  carries  phosphorus  below 
the  Bessemer  limit,  but  such  ores  have  not  come  into 
market. 

Next  to  some  of  the  low-phosphorus  brown  ores  come 
certain  magnetic  ores  of  Clay  and  Talladega  counties. 
They  have  been  explored  very  little,  and  not  much  is 
known  of  them.  They  have  been  already  mentioned  in 
the  chapter  on  Ores. 

It  would  not  have  been  thought  necessary  to  say  even 
this  much  as  to  Bessemer  iron  in  this  State  had  not  the 
writer  received  many  letters  from  abroad  in  reference  to 
the  subject.  It  may  be  said  once  for  all  that  little  or  no 


168         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

iron  is  made  here  with  less  than  0.50  per  cent,  of  phos* 
phorus,  and  it  is  not  thought  that  Bessemer  ore,  in 
quantity,  exists  here.  The  pig  iron  made  in  Alabama 
is  for  foundries,  rolling  mills,  and  pipe  works,  where  the 
percentage  of  phosphorus  is  not  of  so  much  importance. 
Within  the  last  two  years  some  of  the  iron  made  has 
also  gone  for  the  manufacture  of  steel  by  the  basic  open 
hearth  process,  and  this  is  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on 
Steel. 

The  coke  pig  iron  is  graded  according  to  a  certain  sys- 
tem which  has  grown  up  in  the  Birmingham  district, 
and  has  very  little,  beyond  custom,  to  commend  it.  It 
is  illogical,  cumbersome,  and  ridiculous.  These  faults 
might  be  overlooked  if  it  possessed  a  fair  degree  of  ac- 
curacy, but  it  has  not  even  this  merit,  and  exists  by 
virtue  of  a  certain  inertia  acquired  during  the  past  sev- 
eral years.  Whatever  usefulness  it  may  once  have  had 
it  has  sloughed  off,  and  it  now  remains  as  a  monument  of 
absurdity,  whose  distorted  outlines  are  not  even  softened 
by  the  hand  of  time,  for  it  is  not  yet  20  years  old. 

There  are  now  eleven  grades  of  coke  iron,  and  happy 
is  the  grader  whose  u/: erring  skill  enables  him  to  dis- 
criminate between  them.  He  is  indeed  a  rara  avis! 
These  eleven  grades  are,  proceeding  from  the  'hot'  to 
the  'cold'  irons  : 

Open  Silver  Gray. 

Close  Silver  Gray. 

No.  2  Soft. 

No.  1  Soft. 

No.  1  Foundry. 

No.  2  Foundry. 

No.  3  Foundry. 

No.  4  Foundry  (Foundry  Forge) . 

Gray  Forge. 

Mottled . 

White. 


PIG  IRON.  169 

The  first  eight  are  generally  grouped  under  the  term 
* 'foundry  irons/'  and  the  last  three  under  the  term 
•" mill  irons.'*  Iron  for  pipe  works  is  for  the  most  part 
No.  3  and  No.  4  Foundry. 

The  article  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Brannon,  on  Grading  Iron 
in  the  Birmingham  District,  which  appeared  in  the  first 
edition,  is  still  pertinent,  and  is  re-published  here. 
There  is  no  better  grade  in  the  State  than  Mr.  Bran- 
non, so  far  as  knowledge  of  the  iron  is  concerned,  and 
no  more  conscientious  man  in  the  discharge  of  the  oner- 
ous and  delicate  duties  that  devolve  upon  him .  . 

The  article  in  question  was  prepared  partly  for  this 
publication,  and  partly  for  the  Alabama  Industrial  and 
Scientific  Society,  in  whose  Proceedings  it  may  also  be 
found,  Vol.  VI,  1896,  pages  11-14. 

So  far  as  concerns  yard  grading  there  is  nothing  more 
to  be  said.  Mr.  Brannon  has  covered  the  ground  thor- 
oughly, and  his  paper  is  recommended  to  those  who  wish 
to  know  the  best  practice  in  the  Birmingham  district : 


THE  GRADING  OF  SOUTHERN  COKE  IRON  WITH 
SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  THE  BIR- 
MINGHAM DISTRICT. 

(Proc.  Ala.  Indust.  &  Sci.  Soc.,  Vol.  VI,  1896,  pp.  11-14.) 
By  W.  H.  BRANNON,  Bessemer,  Ala. 


Eight  years  ago  there  were  in  the  Birmingham  Dis- 
trict 15  grades  of  iron,  viz: — 1  Foundry;  2  Foundry; 
2i  Foundry  ;  3  Foundry  ;  Extra  No.  1  Mill ;  No.  2  Mill ; 


0  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Mottled;  White;  No.  1  Bright;  Medium  Bright;  Close 
Bright ;  No.  1  Silvery  ;  No.  2  Silvery  ;  and  Silvery  Mill ; 

This  list  was  revised  in  1888,  and  to-day  we  recognize 
11  grades,  viz: — No.  2  Silvery;  No.  1  Silvery;  No.  2 
Soft;  No.  1  Soft;  No.  1  Foundry;  No.  2  Foundry;  No. 
3  Foundry  ;  No.  4  Foundry  ;  Gray  ForgB ;  MDttiecl ;  and 
White. 

In  1888  very  little  attention  was  paid  to  chemical 
analysis,  the  irons  being  graded  almost  entirely  by  color 
and  granulation.  In  addition  to  having  a  fair  knowl- 
edge of  the  principal  chemical  ingredients  of  pig  iron 
the  grader  now  must  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
four  points  in  uniform  grading,  viz: — color,  granula- 
tion fracture  and  face. 

No.  2  Silvery  contains  from  5  to  5.50  per  cent,  of  sili- 
con, has  very  little  or  no  granulation,  and  is  almost 
smooth,  with  a  galvanized  appearance.  No.  1  Silvery 
has  some  granulation,  and  a  smooth  face,  and  contains 
from  4.50  to  5  per  cent,  of  silicon.  Both  these  irons  are 
weak  in  fracture,  and  show  a  fine,  silvery  lustre  on  a 
fresh  face,  and  are  fliky.  They  should  exhibit  no  dark 
spots,  and  the  crystallization  is  obscure.  They  are  what 
they  purport  to  be  "Silvery  Irons,"  and  the  difference- 
between  them,  on  the  yard,  is  mainly,  one  of  granula- 
tion. They  are  the  hottest  iron*,  and  contain  much 
more  silicon  and  much  less  combined  carbon  than  any 
of  the  other  grades.  Their  carbon  is  almost  wholly  in 
the  shape  of  graphite,  but  the  large  excess  of  silicon 
prevents  this  ingredient  from  conferring  a  dark  color  on 
the  iron, 

No.  2  Soft  contains  3.50  to  4.0  per  cent,  of  silicon. 
No.  1  Soft  from  3.0  to  3.5  per  cent.  They  are  both  of  a 
light  color,  smooth  face  and  weak  fracture.  A  distinct 
granulation  begins  to  be  apparent  in  No.  2  Soft,  which 
is  more  pronounced  in  No.  I  Soft,  but  in  neither  of  these 


PIG  IRON.  17.1 

grades  is  the  granulation  so  marked  as  in  the  Foundry 
irons. 

The  Soft  irons  are  darker  than  the  Silvery  irons,  but 
lighter  in  color  than  the  Foundry  irons,  and  the  granu- 
lation is  not  so  jagged  as  in  these  latter  grades.  In  par- 
ticular they  do  not  show  a  silvery  appearance,  and  are 
not  flaky.  The  increasing  ratio  of  graphite  to  silicon 
begins  to  manifest  itself  in  the  Soft  irons  in  the  darken- 
ing of  the  color  as  compared  with  the  Silvery  irons. 

No.  1  Foundry  contains  from  2.50  to  3.0  per  cent,  of 
silicon,  has  a  very  open  and  regular  granulation  extend- 
ing through  the  entire  face,  and  a  dark  gray  color.  The 
crystallization  is  marked,  and  the  face  is  rough  to  the 
feel.  The  difference  between  this  and  No.  2  Foundry, 
which  contains  fro.m-2. 25  to  2.50  per  cent,  of  silicon,  is 
the  same  in  kind  as  exists  between  the  two  silvery,  and 
the  two  soft  irons,  and  is  chiefly  one  of  granulation.  In 
No.  2  Foundry  the  grain  is  not  so  open  as  in  No.  1  Foun- 
dry, nor  is  the  crystallization  so  coarse.  The  color  may 
be  as  dark  in  one  as  in  the  other,  but  in  No.  1  Foundry 
there  is  a  deep  blackish  gray  color  which  is  absent  in 
No.  2  Foundry. 

No.  3  Foundry  contains  from  2.0  to  2.25  per  cent,  of 
silicon,  and  resembles  No.  1  and  No.  2  Foundry  in  struc- 
ture, hut  the  granulation  is  much  less  marked.  The 
crystallization  is  finer  than  in  No.  2  Foundry,  and  the 
color,  while  still  dark  gray,  is  not  so  pronounced. 

No.  4  Foundry,  recently  called  Foundry  Forge,  shows 
the  dark  gray  color  of  the  other  foundry  irons,  but  the 
granulation  is  closes  and  the  crystallization  finer.  It 
car  riesfrom  1.75  to  2.0  per  cent,  o  f  silicon.  Taken  to 
ge  ther  the  Foundry  irons  are  distinguished  by  dark  gray 
color,  open  grain,  and  well  marked  crystallization,  three 
points  which  are  seen  to  the  best  advantage  in  No.  1 
Foundry. 


172         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Gray  Forge  is  the  old  No.  2  Mill.  It  has  1.50  to  1.75 
per  cent,  of  silicon,  and  shows  a  pebbled  granulation  in 
the  center,  with  mottled  edges  about  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  deep  all  around.  It  has  a  blistered  and  pitted  face, 
and  is  frequently  honey-combed  on  the  fractured  end, 
some  of  the  holes  being  an  eighth  to  a  half  an  inch 
deep. 

Mottled  iron  has  from  1.25  to  1.50  per  cent  of  silicon, 
shows  no  granulation,  and  has  a  pepper  and  salt  appear- 
ance on  a  fresh  face.  It  begins  to  show  an  increasing 
amount  of  combined  carbon,  about  one-half  of  the  total 
carbon  being  in  this  condition. 

White  iron  has  from  1.0  to  1.25  per  cent,  of  silicon, 
shows  no  granulation,  and  is  often,  as  white  as  bleached 
linen.  It  carries  very  little  graphite,  and  is  usually 
high  in  sulphur.  It  is  very  harl,  often  resisting  the 
drill,  and  on  this  account  it  is  difficult  to  sample  proper- 

iy- 

In  sampling  pig  iron  one  of  two  methods  may  be  used, 
the  choice  depending  on  the  extent  of  the  subsequent 
analysis.  When  silicon,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  manga- 
nese and  total  carbon  are  to  be  determined  the  iron  is 
best  sampled  from  the  runner,  from  4  to  6  small  ladles 
full  being  taken  during  the  cast  and  shotted  in  a  bucket 
of  cold  water.  When  graphite,  and  combined  carbon  are 
also  to  be  determined  boring  must  be  restored  to.  In 

o 

this  case  two  methods  may  be  used.  In  the  first,  the 
face  of  the  pig  is  bored  in  three  places  to  the  depth  of  -J- 
to  1  inch  along  a  line  drawn  diagonally  across  the  face, 
the  borings  beiug  mixed.  In  the  second,  the  pig  is  bored 
diagonally  almost  entirely  through  in  one  place. 

In  boring  pig  iron  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
intermixture  of  sand  from  the  pig  with  the  borings,  and 
it  is  well  to  put  a  careful  man  in  charge  of  the  drill.  In 
boring  chilled  pig,  and  in  sampling  from  the  runner, 


PIG    IRON.  17S 

there  is,  of  course,  much  less  danger  of  adhering  sand 
getting  into  the  borings.  A  neglect  of  this  matter  may 
often  mislead  the  grader,  as  sand  in  the  borings  shows 
up  as  silicon  in  the  pig,  and  a  No.  3  Foundry  may  be 
classed  as  a  No.  1  Soft.  It  is  a  difficult  and  tiresome 
matter  to  separate  sand  from  borings  by  means  of  a  mag- 
net, and  at  the  best  entails  a  good  deal  of  extra  and  un- 
necessary labor  upon  the  chemist. 

The  tendency  of  the  trade  is  now  strongly  towards  a 
closer  chemical  inspection  of  the  irons  offered  for  sale, 
and  the  grader  who  intends  to  keep  up  with  his  profes- 
sion must  take  this  fact  into  consideration.  He  must, 
therefore,  acquaint  himself  with  the  effect  of  the  chief 
constituents  upon  the  various  irons  in  respect  of  color, 
granulation ,  fracture~and  face .  He  is  called  upon  every 
day  to  decide  questions  involving  a  great  deal  of  money., 
and  as  it  sometimes  happens  that  he  cannot  wait  for  an 
analysis  he  must  be  prepared  to  grade  without  it.  But 
he  should  by  all  means  cultivate  the  closest  intimacy 
with  the  laboratory,  and  have  the  grades  analysed  as 
often  as  possible,  and  not  neglect  to  inform  himself  as 
to  the  influence  of  the  burden,  heat  and  pressure  upon 
the  product  under  his  care. 

(This  paper  was  prepared  for  the  Birmingham  meet- 
ing of  the  Alabama  Industrial  and  Scientific  Society, 
May,  1896. 

At  that  time  the  prices,  f.  o.  b.  furnace  Birmingham 
district,  for  the  grades  given  were  about  as  follows,  per 
ton  of  2,240  Ibs.  : 

Open  Silver  Gray  .  . • ...  $8.75 

Close       "       (i       8.50 

1  Soft 7.75 

2  Soft 7.50 

1  Foundry 8.25 

2  Foundry , ...  7.75 


174  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY    OF  ALABAMA. 

3  Foundry $7.25 

4  Foundry 6.90 

Gray  Forge 6.75 

Mottled 6.75 

White 6.25 

No  one  is  more  competent  than  Mr.  Brannon  to  speak 
of  this  matter,  and  it  is  gratifying  to  hear  him  acknowl- 
edge his  dependence  upon  the  chemist.  He  says,  speak- 
ing of  the  yard  grader,  "He  should  by  all  means  culti- 
vate the  closest  intimacy  with  the  laboratory,  and 
have  the  grades  analysed  as  often  as  possible." 

But  even  when  this  is  done,  and  after  the  grader  has 
re-standardized  his  eyes  by  constant  affiliation  with  the 
chemist,  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  grade  accurately,  un- 
less the  furnace  is  running  uniformly. 

For  instance,  any  one  at  all  familliar  with  the  recent 
course  of  events  in  the  Birmingham  district  knows  that 
it  has  become  difficult  to  make  high-silicon  iron.  Open 
silver  gray,  close  silver  gray,  and  No.  2  soft  are  scarce, 
and  No.  1  soft  carries  the  silicon  of  No.  3  Foundry. 

The  irons  that  formerly  carried  from  3  to  5  per  cent, 
of  silicon  now  carry  from  2  to  3  per  cent.,  and  this  with- 
out having  suffered  a  notable  change  in  appearance. 
Perhaps  it  should  be  said  that  the  changes  in  appearance 
by  which  the  grader  is  guided  are  not  of  such  a  charac- 
ter as  to  enable  him  to  seize  upon  and  use  them  for  his 
purposes. 

Be  the  explanation  what  it  may,  the  conscientious 
grader  is  brought  to  face  this  practical  difficulty,  the 
former  high-silicon  irons  have  changed  their  composi- 
tion without  changing  their  appearance,  corresponding- 

iy- 

An  iron  that  looks  like  a  No.  2  soft,  or  a  No.  1  soft, 
and  which,  according  to  ordinary  yard  grading,  would 
be  classed  as  such,  is  found  in  the  laboratory  to  contain 


PIG  IRON.  175 

less  than  2.50  per  cent  of  silicon,  and  may  contain  only 
2.0  per  cent.  These  are  not  exceptional  instances,  but 
happen  every  day,  and  have  been  happening  for  a  year 
or  more. 

Could  anything  show  more  strongly  the  utter  absurdity 
of  the  present  system  of  grading?  Companies  that  do 
not  seem  to  care  what  they  make,  and  that  have  not  had 
analvaeti  made  for  months  can  not  be  expected  to  take  a 
very  lively  interest  in  a  reform  of  what  is  so  entirely  bad 
as  to  merit  almost  any  condemnation.  Others  that  show 
an  active  interest  in  what  is  going  on  in  different  direc- 
tions seem  to  hesitate  to  attack  the  ridiculous  system  in 
use.  They  should  take  courage,  for  formidable  as  it 
may  appear  it  is  really  on  its  last  legs  and  is  propped  up 
behind  with  rotten  timbers. 

But  there  must  be  something  in  the  system  to  com- 
mend it,  cumbersome  as  it  is.  The  names  of  the  grades 
are  not  altogether  hocus  pocus,  as  might  well  be  imagined, 
but  stand  for  certain  qualities  which  are  recognized  in 
trade,  and  are  found  of  convenient  use.  The  different 
grades  of  iron  must  have  names,  and  the  names  must 
signify  qualities,  or  there  would  be  endless  confusion. 
The  present  criticism  is  not  directed  against  naming  the 
various  grades,  for  this  is  indispensible,  but  against  the 
needless  multiplication  of  grades  and  names.  The  pres- 
ent ridiculous  system  has  grown  up  on  irregularities  of 
furnace  practice,  and  is  continued  because  of  some  fan- 
cied economy.  There  is  really  no  reason  why  there 
should  be  more  than  five  or  at  most  six  grades. 

When  Mr.  Kenneth  Robertson  prepared  a  paper  on 
The  Grading  of  Birmingham  Pig  Iron,  (Trans.  Ainer. 
Inst.  Min.  Engrs.,  Vol.  XVII,  1888-89,  PP.  94-96)  there 
were  eleven  grades,  viz.  No.  1  Foundry,  No.  2  Foundry, 
No.  2i  Foundry,  No.  1  Mill,  No.  2  Mill,  No.  1  C,  No.  2 


176         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 

C,  (Silvery  Irons)  No.  1  Bright,  No.  2  Bright,   Mottled, 
and  White. 

At  that  time  No.  1  Foundry  carried  3.66  per  cent,  of 
silicon,  No.  1  Mill,  which  was  also  known  as  No.  3 
Foundry,  carried  2.87  per  cent.,  and  No.  2  C.  as  much 
as  7.09  per  cent. 

In  ten  years  there  has  been  a  complete  change  in  the 
composition  of  these  irons,  and  yet  the  same  system  of 
nomenclature  is  retained.  High  silicon  irons  are  sel- 
dom made,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  No.  1  Foundry. 
The  No.  1  Foundry  of  ten  years  ago  would  now  be  classed 
as  a  Soft  iron. 

The  agreement  made  in  1888  by  the  chief  producers  of 
southern  iron  recognized  nine  grades,  viz.  Silver  Gray, 
No.  2  Soft,  No.  1  Soft,  No.  1  Foundry,  No.  2  Foundry, 
No.  3  Foundry,  Gray  Forge,  Mottled,  and  White,  and  in 
1893  a  grade  intermediate  between  No.  3  Foundry  and 
Gray  Forge  was  added,  and  called  Foundry  Forge.  It 
is  now  called  No.  4  Foundry. 

Now  and  then  it  happened  that  a  close,  fine  grained 
silvery  looking  iron  would  show  on  analysis  not  more 
that  2  per  cent,  of  silicon,  while  again,  without  greatly 
altering  in  appearance,  it  would  show  from  2.90  to  3.10 
per  cent,  silicon.  If  the  silicon  was  about  2  per  cent,  the 
iron  was  termed  Foundry  Forge,  as  it  is  now  termed 
No.  4  Foundry;  if  the  silicon  was  about  3  per  cent,  it- 
was  and  is  yet,  termed  No.  1  Soft. 

Ordinarily  and  when  grading  for  the  same  -furnace 
running  on  about  the  same  burden,  the  competent  grader 
comes  very  near  the  proper  grade,  and  can  ba  trusted 
to  ship  on  his  own  judgment.  But  when  complaints 
arise,  as  they  do  sometimes,  and  especially  on  a  de- 
pressed market,  the  consumer  has  to  be  shown  that  the 
iron  he  objected  to  as  not  being  No.  3  Foundry,  for  in- 
stance, does  really  contain  from  1.75  to  2  per  cent,  of 


177 


silicon,  and  falls  within  the  limits'  for 'this  particular 
grade,  This  much  as  to  silicon.  But  how  is  it  in  res- 
pect to  graphitic,  and  combined  carbon?  Is  the  iron  tQ 
be  graded  solely  by  its  silicon  content?  Jt  is  granted 
that  Tor  the  most  part  iron  can  be  fairly  weirgra.ded  on 
its'conte'nt'bf  silicon,  and  that  the  variation  of  this  ele- 
ment, confers  upon  the  iron  peculiarities  of  color,  granu- 
lation, fracture,  and  face  that  are  more  strongly  marked 
than  peculiarities  due  to  other  elements.  It  is  this  fact 
that  has  rendered  possible  the  present  system  of  visual 
an'd  tactual  grading.  It  was  quietly,  assumed' that  if  th6 
silicon  was  all  right,  the  iron  was  all  right,  and  this  was 
supplemented  by  the  further  assumption  that  if  the;iron 
was  allright  the  silicon  was  all  right. 

The  "easiest  way  of  grading  iron  is  by  its  silicon  con- 
tent, I >ut  it  by  no  means  follows  that  it  is  the  best  way, 
or  thu  only  way.  Leaving  out  the  content  of  sulphur, 
as  not  seriously  affecting  any  of  the  grades  above  tlrajr 
Forge,  there  sliould  be  certain  ratios  established  "between 
silicon  and  combined  carbon  for  the  Soft  and  'Foundry 
irons!  "  The  variation  in  "the  iimoant  of  silicon  does/ol 
course,  influence  the  quality  of  the  iron,  and  one  might 
go" even  farther -and  allow  that  it  influences  the  iron 
"more  than  any  other  single  element.  "  But  combined  car- 
bon is  by  no  means  to  be  neglected.  " 

In  29  complete  analyse!  of  iron  graded  as  No.  B  Fouti^ 
dry,  I  found  that  the  silicon  vailed  from  1.45  to  3.83  per 
cent.;,  the  average  being  2/37  percent.  Five  of  the  sam- 
ples should  have  been  graded  as  No.  1  Soft,  as  the  silicon 
was  between  3.04  and  3. 17  per  cent. ,  and  one  should 
Have  been  No.  2  Soft  with  silicon  3.83  per  cent.  These  ' 
irons  were  all  graded  on  the  yard  "by  a  careful  and  com- 
petentman,  .yet  in  6  cases  out  of "29,  or  20.7  per  cent., 
the  iron  graded  as  No.  3  Foundry  was  really  Soft.  Ex- 
12 


GEOLOGICAL  St/RVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

eluding  those  six,  the  average  silicon  in  the  other  23  was 
2  1C  per  cent.,  a  result  not  far  wrong,  if  at  all,  as  No.  3 
Foundry  may  vary  from  1.90  to  2.20  per  cent,  of  silicon. 
In  the  six  cases  in  which  the  silicon  was  over  3  percent, 
the  combined  carbon  was  1.04  por  cent.,  and  in  the  23 
others  it  was  0.82  per  cent.,  the  average  of  the  29  being 
0.87  per  cent. 

The  combined  carbon  in  No.  3  Foundry  does  not 
usually  run  as  high  as  0.82  ppr  cent.,  the  average  being 
about  0.40  per.  cent.  In  the  Soft  irons  it  should  not  be 
above  0.40  per  cent.,  but  in  some  cases  especially  when 
the  iron  resembles  No.  3  Foundry,  it  may  go  to  1.00  per 
cent. 

We  have  then  to  discriminate  between  Soft  irons  with 
over  3  per  cent,  of  silicon,  and  the  normal  amount  of 
combined  carbon,  and  irons  which  contain  over  3  per 
cent,  of  silicon  and  upwards  of  1  per  cent,  of  combined 
carbon.  Grading  on  fracture  and  appearance  some  of 
these  latter  irons  would  be  put  in  No.  3  Foundry ;  grad- 
ing on  silicon  content  they  would  go  in  the  Soft  irons, 
with  the  understanding  that  the  combined  carbon  was 
abnormally  high. 

The  same  principle  holds  good  in  respect  of  the  other 
Foundry  irons,  although  in  a  less  degree.  It  is  this  ten- 
dency of  the  lower  grades  of  Foundry  iron  to  show  higher 
percentage  of  combined  carbon  than  is  usually  the  case 
that  renders  grading  by  fracture  and  appearance  some- 
what uncertain.  In  case  of  doubt  a  silicon  estimation 
will  enaole  one  to  decide  whether  or  no  the,  iron  should 
be  put  in  the  Soft  grades,  and  an  estimation  of  combined 
carbon  will  show  whether  or  no  it  should  be  stated  that 
this  element  is  above  the  average. 

The  multiplication  of  grades  may  go  on  indefinitely 
according  as  the  fancied  needs  of  consumers  increase  in 
number. 


ORE.  179 

There  was  recently  completed  an  agreement  between 
the  chief  producers  of  Alabama  coke  iron  whereby  cer- 
tain uniform  prices  for  standard  grades  were  to  be  ob- 
served. It  is  a  very  good  thing  as  far  as  it  goes,  but  it 
does  not  go  far  enough,  nor  strike  very  heartily  at  the 
root  of  the  trouble. 

The  main  point  is  to  secure  uniform  grading,  and  this 
can  certainly  not  be  gained  merely  by  establishing  uni- 
form prices. 

A  local  trade  association  could  take  the  matter  in  hand, 
but  a  simpler  and  it  seems  to  us  a  more  satisfactory  plan 
would  be  for  the  companies  that  made  the  agreement  as 
to  prices  to  make  a  similar  agreement  as  to  grading,  and 
put  a  competent  man  in  charge  of  it.  The  price  depends 
upon  the  grading.  It  is  not  enough  for  the  iron-masters 
to  meet  and  say  what  the  names  of  the  grades  shall  be, 
nor  to  fix  the  price  at  which  the  grades  thus  named  shall 
be  sold.  Unless  there  is  at  the  same  time  an  agreement 
as  so  what  kind  of  iron  shall  be  classed  as  No.  1  Soft,  or 
No.  3  Foundry,  the  agreement  as  to  uniform  prices  is  of 
little  use.  It  is  sure  to  happen  that  permission  to  ask  a 
special  price  for  a  special  iron  will  be  solicited,  and  un- 
less it  is  known  what  this  iron  really  is,  what  relation 
it  bears  to  the  grades  .whose  prices  are  already  fixed  and 
agreed  upon,  how  can  there  be  anything  but  confuv 
io.?  One  may  Bay:  "I  an  making  an  iron, 
which  to  all  ordinary  grading  would  be  put  in  No. 
2  Fou'iidry.'  Bub  ib  card38  leas  thai  i.5)  per  oeiu. 
of  silicon  and  is  therefore  not  a  typical  No.  2  Foundry 
and  I  wish  to  ask  a  special  price  for' it."  He  has  called 
in  his  chemist  and  knows  that  the  iron  is  not  No.  2  Foun- 
dry ,  although  it  closely  resembles  it  in  granulation,  color, 
fracture,  and  face.  He  wishes  to  sell  it  on  analysis,  for 
this  is  really  the  gist  of  the  whole  matter. 

By  all  means  let  there  be  uniform  prices,  but  if  the 


185  GEOLOGICAL  SIHtVETOT  ALABAMA. 

grading  is  not  uniform  what  do  the  uniform  prices 
amount  to,  aft^r  all?  They  are  simply  grade^s-p  litters, 
and  will  inevitably  lead  to  more'  confusion  than  -at  pres- 
ent exists,  ifjtbey  are  not  based  on  the  chemical  analysis 
of  $ie  iron«.- 

Some  people  are  inclined  to  regard  the  chemical  grad-- 
rag !of  pig  if  on  as  a  sort  of  Panjandrum,  or  Mysterious 
Monster,  lying  in  wait  for  the  unwary.  But  no  chemist 
who  understands  the  situation  in  Alabama  can  declare 
oat  and  wit  lor  laboratory  grading,  as  no  chemist  can 
ctoubt  that  the  present  system  is  out  of  date,  illogical, 
aftd  cumbersome . 

The  purpose  to  which  pig  iron  is  put  depends  abso- 
lutely upon  its  composition  -  the  color,  fracture,  granu- 
lation,, and  face  having  nothing  to  do  with  it  except  in  sto 
for  as  they  indicate  the  existence  of  cei'tain  ingredients", 
-vVho'se  actual  percentage  can  be  deter  mined  only  by  the 
chemist.  As  regards  grading  the  inferences  t6  be  drawn 
from  data  obtained  on  the  iron  yard"  ar«'  reliable  only  if 
confirmed  by  laboratory  tests,  and  are  to  be  accepted 
only  when  they  are  so  .confirmed. 

-.-.What  changes  are  to  be  suggested?  -First'  the  main- 
tenance of  a  chief  grader,  whose  business  H  should  be 
to  regulate  the  grading  under  conditions  imposed  by  the 
sejparate  Companies.  Second,  th^  establishment  of  a 
oentral  laboratory  devoted  to  pig  M^i  analyses.  •  Third, 
tfhe  diminirtioTi  of.  the  number  of  'gravies  and  the  substi- 
tution tferefor  of  aot  m^tne  tliaii^ix  grades,  differentia- 
^d  by  the  content  in  silicon ,  and  combined  carbon,  and 
possibly -sulphur.  These  six  grades  might  be  as  follows  : 


/  •:•;•:-.•  -;  .  ••>-.!  '180- 

Silicon.  Combined  Carbon.     Sulphur. 

Silvery  Irons,     5  to  $  0.1^  to  0.30  0.01  to  0.04 

Soft  Irons,           3  to '5  0.20  to  0.60  0.01  to  0.05 

Foundry  Irons,  2  to  3  0.30  to  0.90  0.01  to  0.07 

Gray  Forge,        1  to  2  0.40  to  1.25  0.04  to  0.09 

Mottled,              0.6  to  1  0.50  to  1.80  0.06  to  0.11 

White.  0.1  to  033 (     1.00  to  2.50  O.OS  to  0.30 

This  scheme,  or  some  ..'modification  of  it  in  line  with 
its  general  provisions  would  retain  the  present  nomen- 
clature, and  bring  it  into  closer  accord  with  laboratory 
results.  It  would  do  away  with  five  grades,  which  are 
no  more  than  side-grades  at  bestt  and  would  enable  the 
grader  to  exercise  better  discretion  in  the  yard.  The 
rapidity  and  accuracy  with  which  the  estimation  of  sili^ 
con,  and  combined  carbon  can  now  be  made,  render.it 
possible  to  have  the  results  from  the  cast-house  by  the 
time  the  iron  is  ready . to  break  and  .pile.  .  The  estima- 
tion of  silicon  now  leaves  very  little  to  be  desired,  and 
while  the  estimation  of  combined  carbon  in  pig  iro-n  is 
not  so  accurate  as  in  steel  it  is  sufficiently  so  for  the 
purpose  ifiThand.  If  objection  be  made  to  such  a  rad- 
ical change  much  could  be  done  to  improve  the  present 
system  without}  decreasing  the  number  of  grades,  or  in- 
terfering with  the  nomenclature.  If  a  systematic  record 
of  the  pigs  sampled  were  kept  it  would  be  possible  to 
control  the  grading  within  narrower  limits  than  now 
maintain. 

The  following  plan  is  suggested  for  use  by  graders. 
Have  stout  manila  envelopes  prepared,  3x6  inches  in 
size_.  On  the_.fronfc  have  the  following  blank  form 
printed,  viz  : 


182 


(jflota&iOAL  fttraVair  off  ALABAMA, 


» . . .  .Company. 

.Tons.  Grade 

No Furnace.  Division 

Made 189 ..  Sampled 189  .. 

(Mark  out  the  word  that  does  not  apply.) 

Fracture, 

Regular,  }  Fine. 

Granulation,  >  Medium. 

Irregular,  ;  Coarse. 
}  Smooth. 
Face,  >  Pitted. 

)  Blistered. 

Chilled  edge 

(Signed) 

On  the  back  of  the  envelope  have  the  following  blank 
form  printed,  viz : 

Charges 

Burden.  Pounds. 

Hard  Ore 

Soft  Ore 

Brown  Ore 

Q,     n  I  Limestone 

StoQe  [  Dolomite 

Coke 

Total ,  ..  

To  be  taken  before  each  cast. 


Time. 


Devolutions  of    Engine 

Heat, 
Pressure. 


Average. 


pm  i&oif.  183 


Such  envelopes  were  prepared,  after  consultation  with 
Mr.  Brannon,  and  Mr.  W.  J.  Sleep,  manager  of  the 
American  Pig  Iron  Storage  Warrant  Company  in  this 
(the  Birmingham)  district,  and  were  used  for  a  consid- 
erable period.  They  answered  the  purpose  admirably, 
so  long  as  there  was  co-operation  on  the  part  of  all  the 
officials  concerned.  But  while  the  chemist  was  glad  to 
have  the  information,  and  while  the  grader  found  that 
it  was  just  what  he  needed,  in  many  cases  the  samples 
were  either  not  taken  at  all,  or  the  blanks  were  not 
properly  filled  out.  Orders  sent  out  from  the  general 
office  were  not  obeyed  and  samples  that  should  have 
been  taken  were  utterly  neglected.  One  of  the  annoy* 
ing  things  in  connection  with  the  study  of  Alabama  pig 
iron  is  the  curious  indifference  of  furnace  managers  to 
the  collection  of  systematic  information  in  regard  to 
their  product.  Most  of  the  companies-  have  t)aeir  own 
laboratories,  and  the  chemists  are  alive  to  the  impor- 
tance of  the  subject.  The  cost  of  the  collection  of  such 
information  as  is  outlined  in  the  blanks  is  merely  nomi- 
nal. The  grader  fills  out  the  blanks  in  regard  to  color, 
etc.,  when  the  samples  are  taken.  It  is  done  in  less 
than  five  minutes.  The  additional  information  is  ob- 
tained from  the  furnace  office  in  five  minutes  more. 
But  when  the  general  office  has  sufficient  interest  in  the 
matter  to  order  that  the  blanks  should  be  filled  out  the 
inexplicable  indifference  of  the  furnace  superintendents 
may  block  the  matter.  Whether  it  is  they  think  they 
do  not  need  the  information,  or  whether  they  regard  the 
request  and  the  order  as  an  unwarrantable  interference 
with  their  own  particular  business,  or  both,  is  not  in 
evidence. 

Two  of  the  best  judges  of  iron  in  the  State,  Mr.  Bran- 
non and  Mr.  Sleep,  whose  daily  business  brings  them 
in  close  contact  with  all  kinds  of  iron,  and  upon  whose 


184  £BOLOGUCAt  StBtfEt   0#  ALABAMA, 


judgment  large  suras  of  -money  depend,  are  agree.d  that 
there  is  urgent  need  of  raore  systematic  information  in 
the  grading  .of  iron.  The  composition  of  heretofore 
well  recognized  grades  has  changed,  graders  need  to 
know  what  these  changes  are  .and  how  they  may  be 
recognized,  the  laboratories  are  well  equipped  and  the 
chemists  anxious  to  assist  in  every  possible  way  the 
progress  and  success  of  the  business.  Onp  of  the  chief 
officials  of  a  large  company  has  said  :  "For  the  enlarge- 
ment of  .the.  domestic  market.,  the  most  desirable  thing. 
to  be  done,  in  my  judgment,  is  to  secure  uniformity  in 
grading  and  naming  iron,  and  selling  it  upon  terms  of 
uniformity.  *  *  \  *-.*.*..  It  is  scarcely  too  much  to 
say  that  the  whole  question  of  grading  iron  is  assuming. 
a  more  complex  condition."  And  yet  the  same  old. 
absurd  conglomeration  continues,  and  graders  are  asked 
to  tell  at  a  glace  the  chemical  composition  of  eleven  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  iron.  .  Of  course  they  can  not  do  it,.  and 
they  should  not  be  expected  to  do  it. 

If  any  of  these  .  observations  apply,  to  the  domestic. 
market,  and  in  fact  they  all  apply,  with  what  greater 
force  do  they  apply  to  the  foreign  market? 

Great  efforts  have  been  made  to  secure  a  foothold  for 
Alabama  iron  in  England  or  the  continent  during  the 
last  two  years,  and  a  gratifying  degree  of  success  has 
been  attained..  Shipments  on  foreign  orders  for  the. 
year  1897  approximate  220,000  tons,.  and  it  is  likely  that 
the  trade  will  grow,  if  the  producers  recognize  the  de- 
mands of  the  foreign  consumers.  Alabama  iron  going 
abroad  has  to  compete  with  standard  brands  such  .as 
Eglington,  or  -Clarence,  or  Middlesbrough  No.  3,  whose 
uniform  composition  has  enabled  the  consumer  to  know. 
just  what  to  expect. 

If  he  buys  No.  3  Foundry,  Alabama  make,  he  has  a 
right  to  expect  that  the  silicon,  shall  not  be  in  excess  of 


the  amount  p  esent  in  the  standard  brands.  .  The  for- 
eign market  has  grown  up  on  pretty  much  the  same- 
foundation  as  the  domestic  market,  viz. ,  cheapness.  ,  In. 
spite  of  irregularities  of  composition  Alabama  iron  has 
been  sold  in  this  country  because  it  was  made  at  a  less 
cost  and  could  be  sold  for  less  money  than  other  iron.. 
Lack  of  uniformity  does  not  distinguish  all  the  coke 
iron  made  in  Alabama,  for  there, are  companies  in  the 
State  that  are  very  careful  in  grading,  but  there  has 
been  and  is  now  a  good  deal  of  complaint  that  our  irons 
are  irregular  in  composition.  But  this  has  not  pre- 
vented the  development  of  the  pig  iron  industry,  with 
domestic  sales,  and  may  not  prevent  the  further  ex£en- 
sion  of  the  foreign  market.  The  cultivation  of  new 
markets,  especially  those  situated  at  a  great  distance 
and. which  have  p^lv  recently  been  compelled  to  look J;o 
us  for.  some  of  their  material,  can  be  successfully  under, 
taken  only  by  the  exercise  of  the  greatest  care.  A  con 
sumer  may  for  a  time  put  up  with  what  does  not  ex- 
actly suit  him  if  he  is  buying  it  cheap.  If  forborne 
reason,  temporary  or  permanent,  he  finds  his  usual 
supply  curtailed  lie  must  go  elsewhere.  The  question, 
of  cost  is,  of  course,  the  main  one,  but  the  requirements, 
of  his  own  market,  i.  e.,  for  his  own  manufactured  pro- 
ducts, must  bo  consulted,  and  he"  cannot  continue  to  buy 
a  cheap  article  if  he  can  not  use  it  to  advantage.  With- 
in the  limits  of  their  own  grades  Alabama  irons  are 
known  and  appreciated  in  nearly  all  the  States  of  the 
Union  and  in  many  foreign  countries,  and  what  is  said 
here  is  not  to  be  taken  as  captious  criticism,  for  nothing 
could  be  further  from  the  intention  of  the  writer. 

But  it  has  seemed  to  him  that  the  changes  which  have: 
been  slowly  creeping  into  the  grading  of  iron  should  be 
recognized  at  their  full  value.  The  names  of  the  grades 
do  not  mean  what  they  once  meant,  the  names  have  re- 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

mained,  but  the  composition  of  the  irons  has  changed. 
This  is  no  secret.  It  is  perfectly  well  known  to  those 
who  have  given  the  matter  even  cursory  attention,  and 
the  only  thing  to  do  is  to  act  upon  the  common  know* 
ledge.  A  system  which  almost  every  day  in  the  year 
forces  the  yard  grader  to  class  as  Soft  as  iron  which  does 
not  carry  over  2  per  cent,  of  silicon  has  had  its  day,  and 
should  give  place  to  a  system  founded  on  the  actual 
chemical  composition  of  the  iron. 

This  is  true  no  matter  whether  the  iron  is  intended 
for  home  consumption  or  for  the  foreign  market,  but  it 
is  particularly  true  for  those  who  wish  to  sell  their  iron 
abroad. 

CHAPTER     VII . 

THE    COST  OF   PRODUCING    PIG    IRON    IN 
ALABAMA. 

In  January,  1894,  there  appeared  an  article  in  the 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  New  York,  that  gave 
the  cost  of  making  pig  iron  in  Alabama  at  $6.37.  The 
items  were  as  follows  • 

TABLE   XIX. 

li  tons  of  coke  @  $1.51 $1.89 

2  1-5  tons  of  ore  @    0.67 1.48 

£  tons  of  stone  @     0 .65 0 . 50 

Labor 1 .25 

Repairs 0.50 

Supplies 0 . 50 

Selling  expenses 0 . 25 

Total.,  ,   $6.37 


This  article  was  unsigned  and  the  author  is  at  present 
unknpwn.  The  closeness  with  which  he  approximated 
the  real  cost  will  appear  later. 

In  June  of  the  same  year  Mr.  EG.  Pechin,  formerly 
editor  of  the  Iron  Trade  Review,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  pub- 
lished in  the  same  Journal  an  article  on  the  cost  of 
making  pig  iron  in  Alabama,  and  expressed  the  opinion 
that  it  was  then  costing,  at  two  plants,  not  above  $6.50 
per  ton,  and  possibly  less.  The  author  of  the  unsigned 
article  and  Mr.  Pechin  were  both  very  near  the  truth. 
It  is  now  proposed  to  discuss  the  matter  at  some  length 
and  to  submit  figures  that  may  be  relied  upon  as  the 
cost  in  detail  of  making  pig  iron  in  Alabama  during 
1894,  1895,  and  1896.  What  the  cost  was  in  1897  is  an- 
other matter  and  will  not  be  entered  upon  at  this  time. 
My  excuse  for  discussing  the  matter  must  be  that  an  erro- 
neous opinion  seems  to  be  current  in  some  quarters  that 
pig  iron  can  be  and  is  made  here  for  less  than  $5  per  ton. 
It  is  possible  that  some  iron  has  been  made  in  the  State 
at  a  cpst  closely  approximating  $5,  but  it  is  not  thought 
that  so  low  a  cost  has  been  possible  for  any  length  of 
time.  During  the  years  1894,  1895,  and  1896  the  low- 
est cost  that  I  am  conversant  with  was  $5.71,  and  I  do 
not  think  that  any  company  has  maintained,  for  any 
length  of  time,  say  several  months  or  a  year,  a  cost 
account  lower  than  this.  It  may  be  that  some  furnaces 
with  exceptional  conditions  as  to  the  supply  of  raw  mate- 
rials may  approximate  this  amount  by  the  year,  and 
even,  at  times,  have  made  iron  at  a  less  cost  than 
$5.71. 

In  the  report  made  by  Mr.  Carroll  D.  Wright,  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Labor,  in  1891,  as  to  the  cost  of 
making  pig  iron  in  this  country,  it  is  stated  that,  exclud- 
ing interest,  depreciation  of  value  of  plant,  and  charges 
for  freight  of  product  to  places  of  free  delivery,  the  low- 


GEOLOGICAL  SKfe^Sy^O*1  ALA&A&A. 

e/sfc.  cost  reached  in  any  Southern  State  during  the  year 
1389-90  W.AS  $9.16,  At  that  time  this  was  the  lowest. 
cost  reported  in  the  entire  United  States. 

.The  .details  of  this   cost   were  made   up.  as  follows. 
Materials  : 

Ore .  .  ..  .'".  ...... ''.'.' :.....  . .'$1  96 

Limestone . .  . ,     0  324 

Coke..... ...  .. , ..  ... 4  243 

Total.. ...:../.......   $6  527 

Other  expenditures  : 

Labor... . ........ ..........;.... ;. . .  $1  737 

Officials  and  clerks.  ..........;..... 0  156 

Supplies  and  repairs .  '.  .  0  703 

Taxes. .  .......:..,.;.. 0  038 

Total.  .......  ...  ;........... $2  634 

X>rand  total. .... .....  v.  .  .....  ...  .  ../....    $9  161 

An  Alabama  furnace  in  operation  during  this  period 
was  making  iron  at  the  following  cost,  arranging  the 
items  as  above ; 

Materials  : 

Ore $2.587 

Limestone 0.397 

Cinder,  scrap,  etc 0.099 

Coke 4.471 

Total.,  .  .$7.554 


~    PIG  IRON.  189 


'Other-expenditures:  .  'r  •  - 

Labor...'.../..  ....  ,': $1.835 

Officials  and  clerks. 0.178 

Supplies  and- -repairs.  . -.  .  .  .   0.283 
Taxes ...    0  031 

Total .......  .,,,$2.327 

Grand  total.  .'.' 9.88 

At  a  certain  furnace  plant  in  the  State,  producing  in 
181*0  about  140, 00.0. tons  of  pig  iron,  the  cost  was  *as  fol» 
lows  :  ..•;..  I 

Material , , $<>,&2 

-          .    Labor... 1.86 

Sundrfe* .     0.83 

Total  ; $9.01 

.The  average  cost  of  making  iron  in  Alabama  in 
:i 889-90  was  about  $9.50,  although  it  must  be  said  that 
some  furnaces  made  iron  for  about  $9. 

During  the  period-  of  1890-1897  the  cost  of  making 
iron  was -about  $3  less  than  it  was  in  1890,  and  the  low-  ) 
esfr  cost  reached  over  any  considerable  period  was  ahowt 
$5.76,  with  a  possibility  that  some  furnaces  were  able  to . 
make  it  fur ,ahout.J&.5j50  over  a  limited  period. 
•  It  is  proposed,  in, the  following  pages,  to  give  detailed 
cost  sheets  of  the  production  of  a  very  large  amount  of  " 
pig  iron,  and  then  to  discpssy (briefly,  the  reasons  for  the 
deductions  of  coat  within  the  last  six  or  seven  years. 


190 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


COST  OF    MAKING    PIG   IRON  IN    ALABAMA  IN 
1894,  1895,  1896. 

TABLE  XX. 
LABOR  ACCOUNT. 


Cast-house 

Cinder-yard 

Engines  and  boilers 
Furnace  office . ... . . 

Iron-yard. ..... .. 

Laboratory  ........ 

Lights :  .  .... ....  . 

Locomotives.  .  .    . .. 

Salaries 

Sand , ...  ..:... 

Stables  ."...' 

Stock-house. .  , . — 
Tracks,  ...  . .  ..  .  .:;. 

Water... '.-?:. ....;.. 

Extra, 


1894. 
Cents. 

1895. 
Cents. 

1896. 
Cents. 

U,7 

19.3 

19.4 

4.2 

5.4 

6.7 

4.4 

8.0 

8.3 

2.8 

1.0 

1.1 

16.0 

17.2 

17.1 

0.9 

.  .  .  . 

.... 

0.8 

08 

0.8 

9.9 

11.0 

10.2 

3.3 

2.6^ 

2.5 

0.9 

0.1 

'   ..    .,r;- 

0.8 

0.8 

12 

26.6 

29.5 

25.9 

2.0 

2.^ 

1.2 

1.1 

•  1.4 

•r.  :  .'..  '•:.'• 

1.0 

0.4 

Total 


83.5        90.8 


96.6 


'     TABLE  XXI 

SUPPLIES. 


Cast-house ........ 

Cinder-yard 

Engines  and  boilers 
Furnace  office 


1894. 
Cents. 

5.5 

1.4 

3.1 

0,8 


189.5. 
Cents. 
8.0 
1.7 
4.2 
0.8 


1896. 

Cents. 

9.2 

1.8 

4.0 


PIG  IRON. 


191 


Iron-yard 0.8  0.8           0.5 

Laboratory 0.2  0.4           0.5 

Lights.... 0.4  0.6          0.6 

Locomotives 11.0  6.0           6.8 

Sand 2.5  0.3 

Stables 0.3  0.4          0.3 

Tracks 1.0  1.7           1.4 

Stock-house 2.4  -2.4           1.3 

Water.... 1.1  1.3           2.0 

Extra  supplies 2.4  2.3           3.0 

Total 32.9  30.9         31.4 

TABLE  XXII. 
CURRENT  REPAIRS. 

Cast  house.  . • .      5.2       .  Current  repairs 

Cinder-yard 1.4  for    1895  and 

Engines  and  boilers 4.8  1896  taken  at 

Iron-yard 0.6  20  cents. 

Locomotives 0.6 

Stock-house 1.5 

Tracks... 2.0 

Water., ,      1.0 

Extra.'. '.: . '/.'..,     1.40 

Total....  ..':.;.-' £...-..   18.6 

Putting  these  items  together  with  the  others  that  ap* 
ply  to  the  matter  we  have  the  following : 

TABLE   XXIII. 

AVERAGE  COST  OF  PIG  IRON  IN  1894  1895          1896 

Ore...., $1.86  $1.754       $1.716 

Limestone. 0.16  0.240         0.128 

Coke , . . . .       2.78  2.840        2.735 

Total  for  materials..             ,   $4,800  $4.834     $4.579 


GEOLOGICAL  SftRVE*  OF  ALABAMA. 

Materials.'. '.  ." $4.800  $4  834  $4.575 

Labor . . 0.835  0.^98  0.966 

Supplies .  .', • 0.328  0.302  0  31~4 

Current  repairs. . 0.181  0.200  0.200 

G  :ueral  expenses. .  .' 0.077  0,070  0,093 

Eelining. 0.170  0  183  0,200 

Taxes.  . 0.026  0.025  0.080 

Insurance  . .  : 0.003  0.005  0.006 

Bad  debts.... 0.037  0  033  0.030 

Total. ".'.",.. ...   $6.457     $6.650       $6.464 

The  lowest  cost  during  1891  was   $5. 7 \',  the  highest 

was  $7.8Xvancl  thejwerage  sslling  price  of  No.  2  Foan* 
dry  iron  was  $7.28  The  lowest  cost  during  1895  was 
$5.84,  the  highest  $7;02^  a^nd  the  average  Celling  price  of 
No.  2  F.  was  $7.15.  The  .lowest  cost  during  1896  was 
$5.74,  the  highest  $6:84;  and  'the  "average  selling  price 
of  'No.  2  F.  was  $7.22. 

The  percentage   distribution  of  the  various  items  of 
cost  is  as  follows  :     -  " 

TABLE  XX IV. 


Ore         

1894. 
Per  Cent. 
--..-        28.8 

1895, 
Per  Cent. 
26.3 

1B96,  •• 
Per  -Cent. 
2^.6 

Limestone 
Coke... 

....>,.,;                2;5 

43.1 

4,0 

42.6 

..      3.0 
42.3 

Materials 

Labor 

Supplies . 

Current  repairs 

General  expenses   ..... 

Kflining 

Taxes. . 

'Bad  "debts. 

Total . ,  100 .00  100 .0         TOO  .00 


PIG  IRON.  19& 

The  average  cost  of  the  raw  materials  during  these 
three  years  was  as  follows,  per  ton,  stock-house  de- 
livery : 

Hard  Ore.  Soft  Ore.  Brown  Ore.  Limestone.  Coke. 
1894.  .  .$0.753      $0.566  $1.01  $0.605     $1.875 

1895...    0675        0.535  1.09  0.634       1.758 

1896...   0.672        0.572  1.07  0.647       1.727 

There  was  also  used  some  mill  cinder  at  an  average 
cost,  per  ton,  of  75  cents,  and  a  little  blue  billy  at  an. 
average  cost  p^r  ton,  of  $1.71.  But  the  proportion  of 
these  two  materials  was  small,  and  the  items  may  be 
neglected.  We  are  now  in  a  -position  to  compare  the 
co^ts  of  these  years,  one  with  another,  so  as  to  be  able 
to  observe  the  course  of  the  industry  at  a  time  when  it- 
is  likely  that  the  costs  were  as  low  as  they  will  be  for 
some  time  to  come.  Unless  large  expenditures  are 
made  for  improvements  it  is  likely  that  these  costs  will 
stand,  as  the  lowest  for  quite  a  while. 

The  first  thing  that  attracts  our  attention  is  the  close 
agreement  in  the  costs  for  the  three  years,  the  greatest 
difference  being  only  21  cents  as  between  1894  and  1895, 
while  as  between  1895  and  1896  there  is  a  difference  of 
only  1  cent,  This  close  agreement  may,  in  part,  be  due 
to  the  system  of  book-keeping  employed,  not,  of  course,, 
with  any  intention  of  misleading  but  merely  to  harmo- 
nize the  costs  of  one  year  with  those  of  another  in  a  gen- 
eral way.  For  instance,  take  the  years  1894  and  1895, 
where  there  was  a  practical  identity  of  cost  In  1896  the 
cost  of  raw  materials  was  24  cents  less  than  J  >94  while 
the  labor  costs  were  13  cents  more.  The  cos!}  in  1894 
which  were  in  excess  of  those  in  1896  are  as  follows  : 


394         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Cents. 

Ore 14 

Stone 4 

Coke 5 

Supplies 1 

Total 24 

While  those  that  were  less  in  1894  than  in  1896  are  as 
follows  : 

Cents. 

Labor ..  13 

Repairs 2 

General  Expenses 2 

Relining .  .      3 

Taxes 5 

Total 25 

There  is  certainly  a  very  judicious  balancing  of  ac- 
counts as  between  these  two  years  that  at  the  close  of 
1896  it  should  be  found  that  there  was  a  difference  of 
but  one  cent.  It  leads  to  the  supposition  that  arbitrary 
charges  have  been  made,  based,  it  may  be,  on  the  ex- 
perience at  that  particular  plant  but  liable  to  excessive 
variations. 

The  cheapness  with  which  the  raw  materials  are  mined 
and  delivered  in  the  stock-house  has  conditioned  the 
building  up  of  the  industry  of  iron  making  more  than 
any  other  single  circumstance,  perhaps  more  than  all 
other  circumstances  combined.  It  is  this  feature  of  the 
matter  that  has  made  progress  possible,  for  the  labor 
costs  and  other  expenses  are  not  as  low  as  they  are  among 
the  chief  competitors  of  the  State  in  the  iron  market. 
The  furnace  yield  of  iron  from  the  ores,  taking  a  general 
average,  is  41%,  and  it  takes  2.47  tons  of  ore  to  make  a 
ton  of  iron.  Handicapped  with  such  low  grade  ore  it 


PIG  IRON.  195 

has  yet  been  possible  to  assemble  this  ore,  with  the  lime- 
stone and  coke,  and  make  iron  at  an  expense,  for  raw  . 
materials,  of  $4.57  over  a  period  representing  about  160,- 
000  tons.  1  his  would  not  have  been  possible  except  for 
the  topographical  and  geological  features  of  the  district. 
If  one  inquires  as  to  the  future  of  the  iron  industry  in 
the  State  he. can  be  best  answered  not  by  referring  to 
what  has  been  done,  but  by  judicious  investigations  into 
the  possibilities  of  continued  cheap  raw  materials.  On 
the  average  the  percent  of  the  total  cost  of  making  iron 
in  Alabama  borne  by  the  raw  materials  during  the  three 
years  we  have  selected  was  72.7.  During  the  census 
year  1889-90  it  was  about  74%,  so  that  there  has  been  of 
recent  years  a  reduction  in  this  most  important  item  of 
1.3%,  and  as  much  as  4%  if  we  take  the  year  1896  as 
the  criterion.  In  labor  costs  there  has  been  a  percent- 
age reduction  of  5%,  as  the  labor  cost,  7  to  8  years  ago, 
was  over  19%  of  the  total  cost,  while  during  the  period 
1894  to  and  including  1896  it  was  14.3%.  The  saving 
in  labor  has  been  nearly  four  times  as  much  as  the  sav- 
ing in  raw  materials.  Realizing  that  the  great  advant- 
age given  by  cheap  raw  materials  was  not  the  only  fac- 
tor in  maintaining  a  position  in  the  iron  market,  the 
producers  of  iron  in  Alabama  set  themselves  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  converting  these  materials  into  pig  iron,  and 
-as  the  labor  cost  was  and  is  the  most  important  after 
the  materials  strenuous  efforts  were  made  to  diminish  it. 
It  may  be  possible,  by  introducing  mechanical  appliances 
around  the  furnaces,  not  only  in  the  stock-house  but  also 
in  the  cast-house,  to  bring  down  the  labor  cost  by 
twenty-five  cents  per  ton  of  iron,  so  that  it  would  not 
exceed,  let  us  say,  60  cents.  But  this  implies  the  ex- 
penditure of  large  sums  of  money  and  more  care  in  the 
preparation  of  the  stock  before  it  reaches  the  furnace. 
The  advantage  of  cheap  raw  material,  we  must  remem- 


196         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

ber,  is  one  that  is  apt  to  create  a  false  sense  of  security. 
Relying  too  much  upon  what  nature  has  done  leads  one 
to  neglect  doing  what  he  should  do.  Then  too,  cheap 
materials  with  an  enormous  drain  upon  them  all  the 
while,  putting  nothing  back  while  taking  a  vast  deal 
out,  after  so  long  a  time — and  the  time  may  not  be  so 
very  long,  after  all — fail  to  respond  to  the  demands 
made  upon  them.  Their  inevitable  tendency  is  to  be- 
come dearer  as  they  become  scarcer.  To  counterbalance 
this  tendency  there  must  be  economies  in  other  direc- 
tions, such  for  instance,  as  a  more  scientific  and  less 
wasteful  system  of  mining,  reductions  in  freight 
charges  on  raw  materials,  ownership  and  direct  working 
of  the  mines  and  quarries,  and,  particularly,  improve- 
ments at  the  furnaces  for  handling  stock  and  products. 
Whether  or  no  we  have  already  seen  the  cheapest  pig 
iron  in  Alabama  is  a  question  for  the  future  to  decide.  I 
do  not  propose  to  enter  upon  it  at  present  except  to  say 
that  there  has  been  too  much  reliance  placed  upon  the 
(Cheapness  with  which 'materials*have  been  assembled  and 
a  great  deal  too  little  upon  improved  methods.  When 
cheap  materials  become  dearer  and  no  improvements 
have  been  made  in  other  directions  then  the  cost  of  mak- 
ing iron  in  Alabama  will  begin  to  increase,  and  many  of 
the  advantages  she  now  enjoys  will  be  lost. 

The  constant  drain  that  has  been  made  upon  tne  so- 
called  soft  red  ores,  i.  e.  the  ores  that  carry  from  46  to 
48  per  cent,  of  iron  with  less  than  1  p^r  cent  of  lime  and 
that  can  be  delivered  in  the  stock-house  for  55  cents  per 
ton,  has  already  made  itself  felt.  There  is  very  little  of 
such  ore  now  left  within  easy  reach  of  Birmingham  and 
the  furnace  practice  is  in  a  state  of  transition.  From 
this  time  on  the  ore  mixture  will  be  made  up  more  large- 
ly of  the  limy  ores  and  the  brown  ores  (limonites.) 


PIG  IRON.  197 

"There  are  some  furnaces  of  exceptional  situation,  as  for 
instance  at  Ironaton  and  Shelby  and  possibly  at  Shef- 
field that  can  secure  brown  ore  in  the  stock-house  for  60 
to  80  cents  per  ton,  but  this  is  by  no  means  the  general 
situation.  The  average  co-t  of  brown  ore  at  the  stock- 
house  is  close  to  $1,  if  indeed  it  be  not  nearer  to  $  i  .10. 
With  hard  ore  at  70  cents  and  brown  ore  at  $1  a  mix- 
ture of  20  per  cent  brown  and  80  per  cent  hard  would 
cost  per  ton  of  iron,  $1.91,  taking  the  iron  in  the  hard 
ore  at  37  per  cent,  and  in  the  brown  ore  at  50  per  cent. 
The  average  cost  of  the  ore  mixture,  with  varying  pro- 
portions of  hard,  soft  and  brown  ore,  during  the  y<-ars 
1894-96,  was  $1.77,  a  difference  of  14  cents  per  toa 
against  the  hard-brown  mixture. 

This  disadvantage  may,  of  course,  be  counterbalanced 
by  using  less  limestone,  but  it  may  well  be  that  more 
•coke  will  have  to  be  used,  so  that  the  difference  is  not 
likely  to  be  less  than  14  cents  per  ton  and  m~y  be  more. 
But  the  furnace  practice,  with  progressive  exclusion  of 
the  soft  ore,  has  not  been  sufficiently  extended  as  yet  to 
permit  a  positive  opinion,  and  the  matter  must  await 
further  developments. 

1  he  acquirement  of  limestone  and  dolomite  quarries 
by  the  furnace  companies  and  the  direct  working  of  them, 
without  royalties,  or  profits  to  the  contractors,  has  al- 
ready resulted  in  notable  economies  in  respect  of  fluxes. 

The  development  of  the  by-product  system  of  coking, 
with  the  result  of  giving  cheaper  cok  ,  is  also  a  most 
promising  outcome  of  recent  months*  in  the  Birmingham, 
district. 

In  connection  with  the  blast  furnaces  of  the  Tennes- 
see Coal,  Iron  and  R.-iilway  Company,  at  Ensley,  near 
Birmingham,  the  Soivay  Process  Company  is  erecting 
120  Semet-Solvay  ovens,  and  expect  to  have  them  in 
operation  by  the  close  of  1898.  The  ordinary  bee- 


198         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

hive  coke  is  being  improved,  and  we  may,  I 
think,  expect  that  its  quality  will  be  still  further  insist- 
ed upon  by  those  who  buy  in  the  open  market.  What 
ever  the  future  may  hold  for  the  State  in  respect  of  the 
cost  of  making  iron,  one  thing  appears  to  be  certain,  viz. 
that  the  most  rigid  economies  and  the  very  best  practice 
will  be  required  to  maintain  as  low  a  cost  account  as  has 
been  reached  during  the  last  few  years. 

The  development  of  the  home  market  for  pig  iron, 
while  not  a  factor  of  its  cost,  is  yet  of  no  little  import- 
ance as  affecting  the  future  of  the  industry.  The  capac- 
ity of  the  rolling  mills  now  built  in  the  State  is  183,300 
tons  per  annum.  For  this  amount  must  be  substracted 
19,200  tons  representing  the  capacity  of  mills  which,  in 
all  likelihood,  will  not  be  in  operation  again.  This 
leaves  164,100  tons  as  the  total  annual  capacity  of  the 
mills  that  may  be  counted  upon  as  consumers  of  pig  iron. 
The  pipe  works  making  gas,  water  and  soil  pipe  have  a 
total  annual  capacity  of  21,000  tons.  If  we  allow  25,000 
tons  a  year  for  axles,  mine  and  car  wheels,  and  iron 
used  in  the  construction  of  railroad  cars,  &c.  &c.,  we 
shall  have  210, 100  tons  as  the  total  annual  capacity  of 
the  mills,  pipe  works,  &c.  To  this  may  be  added  23,000 
tons  as  the  annual  capacity  of  the  steel  works  now  built. 
The  grand  total,  therefore,  is  233.000  tons  per  annum, 
and  represents  the  amount  of  pig  iron  that  can  be  work- 
ed up  in  the  establishments  in  the  State.  But  it  is  not 
likely  that  the  amount  of  domestic  pig  iron  so  used  is 
above  175,000  tons  annually,  or  a  little  over  18  per  cent, 
of  the  annual  production  of  pig  iron,  and  I  am  inclined 
to  take  it  at  not  over  15  per  cent.,  or  about  142,000  tons. 
In  the  State  there  are  7  rolling  mills,  2  steel  works,  2 
bridge  works,  7  pipe  works,  2  car  axle  works,  and  4  car 
wheel  works  to  use  up  nearly  a  million  tons  of  pig  iron. 
This  statement  does  not  include  the  foundries,  but  even 


PIG  IRON.  199 

with  these  included  the  capacity  for  finished  goods  does 
not  reach  20  per  cent,  of  the  production  of  crude  iron. 

The  ^tate  needs  more  extensive  and  better  equipped 
foundries,  machine  shops,  and  other  establishments  for 
using  what  is  made  at  home.  From  the  Birmingham 
district  alone  there  were  shipped  in  1897  749,065  tons  of 
pig  iron.  During  the  year  2  8,633  tons  were  exported^ 
as  against  65,000  tons  in  1896.  The  State  exported  1.5 
times  as  much  pig  iron  as  was  used  within  her  own  bor- 
ders. The  home  consumption  has  not  kept  pace  will 
the  home  production,  and  the  developments  of  the  last 
ten  or  fifteen  years  have  been  in  the  direction  of  crude 
iron  and  not  in  that  of  finished  goods.  With  respect  to 
pig  iron  and  its  products  the  State  is  pretty  much  in  the 
condition  in  which  the  Southern  States  were  a  few  years 
ago  with  respect  to  cotton  and  cotton  mills.  There  has 
been  a  great  awakening  with  respect  to  cotton,  why  not 
with  respect  to  |  ig  iron?  These  two  products,  the  one 
natural  and  thf  other  manufactured,  represent  the  crud- 
est of  crude  mat*  ri  ils,  for  neither  can  bo  utilized  in  the 
economic  arts  until  it  is  transformed  into  something  else, 
the  cotton  into  c<  tton  goods,  the  pig  iron  into  castings, 
wrought  iron,  and  steel.  Unless  there  is  a  great  change 
in  the  consumption  of  pig  iron  we  shall  continue  to  be 
hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water  for  those  whose  in- 
telligence is  no  greater  but  whose  f  jrosight  is  keener  than 
our  own. 


200         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA, 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

COAL  AND  COAL  WASHING. 

According  to  Dr.  Eugene  A.  Smith,  State  Geologist, 
the  area  of  the  several  coal  fields  of  the  State  is  as  fol- 
lows ;  in  square  miles  : 

Oahaba 400 

Coosa 150 

Warrior ' 7800 

Total 8,350 

By  far  the  greater  amount  of  coal  is  mined  in  the 
Warrior  Field,  the  chief  operations  being  in  the  coun- 
ties of  Jefferson,  Walker  and  Tuscaloosa,  in  the  order 
•of  prominence.  In  Bibb  county  the  mines  in  and 
around  Blocton  furnished  last  year  (1897)  671,077  tons. 
Adding  to  this  amount  the  84,673  tons  mined  in  Shelby 
'County,  \ve  have  a  total  of  755,850  tons  to  be  credited  to 
the  Cahaba  field,  or  about  13  per  cent,  of  the  total  pro- 
duction. The  Coosa  field  produced  67,-584  tons,  or 
about  1  per  cent,  while  the  Warrior  field  produced 
'5;0'24,031  tons,  or  more  than  85  per  cent,  of  the  total 
output.  At  present,  and  it  may  be  for  many  years  to 
•come,  the  Warrior  field  is  and  will  be  the  great  source 
of  the  coal  mined  in  the  State.  Its  area  is  very  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  other  two  combined,  the  coal  is 
certainly  as  good  and  the  facilities  for  mining  and  trans- 
porting it  are  better  than  in  the  other  fields.  The  best 
and  largest  seams  of  coking  coal  are  in  the  Warrior 
field,  but  for  steam  and  domestic  purposes  the  War- 
rior coals  are  no  better  than  those  from  the  Cahaba 
field.  Some  of  the  Coosa  coals  are  also  well  adapted 


GOAL  AND  COAL  WASHING.  201 

for  coking,  steam,  and  domestic  use,  but  they  have  not 
as  yet  come  much  into  market. 

The  following  tables,  taken  from  the  reports  of  Mr. 
E.  W.  Parker,  Statistician  of  the  Department  of  the  In- 
terior, will  exhibit  the  condition  of  the  coal  industry  in 
Alabama,  during  recent  years. 


202 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 


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TjJ  io  CO  TT  ^        10 

TT  10  co^-  ^      w 


COAL  AND  COAL  WASHING. 


208 


Blount  county  produced  40  tons  in  1893  ;  Etowah  900 
in  1895,  3,080  in  J896,  and  3,168  tons  in  1879  and  Jack- 
son 6,011  in  1894.  These  returns  are  included  in  the 
totals. 

The  two  following  tables,  also  from  Mr.  Parker's  re- 
port, show  the  average  prices  for  Alabama  coal,  f.  o. 
b.  mines,  by  counties,  since  1890,  and  the  statistics  of 
labor  employed  and  working  time. 

TABLE   XXVI. 
Average  Price    For  Alabama  Coal,  f.  o.  b.  Mines. 


COUNTY. 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1896 

1887 

Bibb  

$  1  10 

$  1  17 

$  ]  08 

$     1  00 

$  1  00 

$  1  00 

$  0  89 

$  0  93 

Blount  

0  80 

1  00 

1  09 

Jefferson    
St.  Glair  

1.00 
1.18 

1.04 
1.  14 

1.03 
1   '0 

0.98 
1  06 

0.90 
0  96 

0  87 
0  48 

0.89 
1  00 

0.88 
0  81 

Shelby  

2.50 

2  60 

2.6! 

I  82>£ 

1.44 

1  73 

1  75 

1.50 

Tuscaloosa  .... 
Walker  

1.05 
1.00 

1.03 
1.03 

1.07 
1  02 

1.05 
0  98 

1.06 
0.8" 

0  97 

0.90 

1.13 
0.85 

0  93 
0.79 

Gen  average.  .  . 

1.03 

1.07 

1  05 

0.99 

0  9o 

0  90 

0.90 

0.88 

204 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 


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COAL  AND  COAL  WASHING. 


205 


The  number  of  mines  reported  in   the  coal  producing 
counties  in  1896  and  1897  was  as  follows  : 

TABLE  XXVIII 

Giving  the  Number  of  Mines   in   the   Coal   Producing 
Counties,  in  1896  and  1897. 


COUNTIES. 

Number  c 

f  Mines. 

1896 

1897 

Bibb 

5 

6 

Blount 

1 

1 

Cullman  „  .  .  .  . 

1 

Etowah  

1 

1 

Jefferson  

32 

40 

St.  Glair  

2 

2 

Shelby         

5 

7 

Tuscaloosa  .  .      

6 

6     • 

Walker 

26 

23 

Winston  .                                           .... 

1 

2 

Total  . 

80 

86 

206 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


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COAL  AND  COAL  WASHING, 


207 


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Grand  Total 


208  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY    OF   ALABAMA. 

The  coal  product  of  Wyoming  in  1896  was  2,229,624 
tons,  valued  at  $2,904,185.  The  average  price  per  ton 
was  $1.30  ;  average  number  of  days  active  209  ;  average 
number  of  employees  2,949  ;  number  of  mines  28. 

The  coal  product  of  Georgia,  in  1896,  was  238,546 
tons ,  valued  at  $  168 ,050 .  The  average  price  per  ton  was 
$0.70;  average  number  of  days  active  303;  average 
number  of  employees  713,  including  360  State  convicts  ; 
number  of  mines  2. 

The  production  and  value  of  the  coal  mined  in  the 
United  States,  in  1897,  is  given  by  Mr.  Parker,  as  fol- 
lows. 


COAL  AND  COAL  WASHING. 


209 


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210 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA, 


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200 
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CCAL  AND  COAL  WASHING.  211 

According  to  the  report  of  Mr.  James  D.  Hillhouse, 
State  Mine  Inspector,  the  following  was  the  output  of 
coal  in  Alabama  in  1896,  by  counties  and  by  classifica- 
tion, as  also  of  coke,  and  the  number  of  coke  ovens. 


212 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


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COAL  AND  COAL  WASHING.  218 

The  total  number  of  mines  was  80.  The  70  mines  report- 
ing in  the  State  in  1896  worked  14,814  days,  an  average  of 
211.6  days  per  mine.  The  highest  number  of  days  re- 
•corded  was  312  in  Jefferson  County,  and  the  lowest  42 
in  St.  Clair  County.  Five  (71  per  cent.,)  mines 
worked  more  than  300  days,  19  (27.1  per  cent.) 
worked  between  250  and  300  days,  23  (33  per 
oent.)  worked  between  200  and  250  days,  14  (20 
cent.)  worked  between  150  and  200  days,  5  (7.1 
per  cent.)  worked  between  100  and  150  days,  while  4 
(5.7  pei'  cent.)  worked  lea*  thai  100  days.  The 
number  of  days  worked,  by  counties,  as  given  in  the 
above  table,  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  total  num- 
ber of  days  reported  from  each  county  by  the  total  num- 
ber of  mines  making  the  returns.  It  is  not  altogether 
fair  to  the  mines  working  a  considerable  number  of  days 
to  group  them  with  mines  working  irregularly,  or  with 
small  mines.  Thus,  by  the  table,  Blount  County  has  to 
its  credit  273  days,  but  produced  only  32,760  tons,  while 
Jefferson  County,  producing  3,729,719  tons  has  238 
days  to  its  credit.  Perhaps  a  better  insight  into  the 
business  would  be  gained  by  dividing  the  total  amount 
of  coal  credited  to  each  county  by  the  number  of  days 
worked . 

Proceeding  in  this  manner  we  have  the  following  table, 
giving  the  amount  of  coal  produced  per  day  in  the  va- 
rious counties  during  the  year  1896. 

TABLE   XXXTI. 

Giving  the  amount  of  coal  mined  per  working  day 
per  county  in  1896  : 


214  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

TONS. 

Bibb ...... 3,025 

Blount. . ... ...  , ,  .         320 

Etowah 13 

Jefferson.  . . . ,..,;..   15,671 

St.  Glair ? ...... 211 

Shelby.. -... .  . 358- 

Tuscaloosa . 929 

Walker... ..  . .     5,382 

Winston 13 

Total. . , . , 25,722 

Dividing  these  figures,  in  turn,  by  the  number  of 
mines  reported  will  give  a  general  average  of  the  ton- 
nage output  per  day  per  miner  per  county  in  1896. 

: 

TABLE  XXXIII. 


Giving  a  general  average  of  the  tonnage  per  day  per 

1t1£i*»      T"\£\T»      f\  f\  11  t*\  4~  TT      T  f%        "I    Qd£i 


miner  per  county  in, 1896. 


Bibb...  ., ,. 3.56 

Blount 3.00 

Etowah 1.00 

Jefferson .  . 4.14 

St.  Glair . . .  . . . 2.24 

Shelby 1.66 

Tuscaloosa 2.25 

Walker 4.02 

Winston 0.30 

Working  the  8  ft.  seam  at  the  Blue  Creek  Mines,  Jef- 
ferson, Co.,  504  miners  working  275  days  produced,  in 


COAL  AND  COAL  WASHING.  215 

1896,  662,295  tons  of  coal,  an  average  of  4.77  tons  per 
day  per  miner. 

On  the  4  ft.  seam  at  Pratt  mines,  Jefferson  County, 
338  miners  secured  354,084  tons  in  270  days,  an  average 
of  3.88  tons  per  day  per  miner. 

On  the  thinner  seams  in  the  northern  part  of  Jeffer- 
son Co.,  averaging  2i  ft.,  273  men  secured  93,343  tons 
in  196  days,  an  average  of  1.74  tons  per  day  per  miner. 

The  amount  of  coal  obtained  per  day  per  miner  does 
not  altogether  depend  upon  the  thickness  of  the  seam. 
There  are  other  circumstances  as  well,  for  instance  the 
quality  of  the  coal  itself,  its  surroundings  as  regards 
ease  of  mining,  whether  it  has  to  be  blasted  down,  or 
can  be  under  cut  and  wedged  down,  etc.,  etc.  It  does 
not  follow  because  of  the  thickness  of  the  seam  that  the 
miners  make  better  wages,  for  the  thicker  the  seam, 
other  things  being  equal,  the  less  is  the  rate  paid  per 
ton  for  mining. 

According  to  the  report  of  Mr.  James  D.  Hillhouse, 
State  Mine  Inspector,  the  following  was  the  output  of 
coal  and  coke,  and  the  number  of  coke  ovens  in  Alabama 
in*  1897,  by  counties  and  by  classification. 


TABLE  XXXIV. 

Giving  the  output  of  coal,  and  coke,  and  the  number 
of  coke  ovens  in  1897,  by  counties  and  by  classification  ; 
also  the  number  of  days  worked. 

The  total  number  of  m^n  employed  was  7,743  miners; 
2,270  inside  day  men,  and  1,088  outside  day  men,  a 
total  of  11,101,  as  against  a  total  of  9,894  in  1896,  and 
9,766  in  1895. 

The  total  number  of  mines  was  86. 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


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COAL  AND  COAL  WASHING.  217 

The  80  mines  reporting  in  the  State  in  1897  worked 
17,727  days,  an  average  of  221.6  days  per  mine. 

The  highest  number  of  days  recorded  was  312,  in 
Jefferson  county,  and  the  lowest  was  41,  in  Walker 
couuty. 

Of  the  80  mines  reporting  7 (==8. 8  per  cent.)  worked 
300  days  and  over;  22  (=27.5  per  cent.)  worked  be- 
tween 250  and  300  days ;  27  (=35  0  per  cent.)  worked 
between  200  and  250  days  ;  15  (=18.7  per  cent.)  worked 
between  150  and  200  days;  7  (=8.8  per  cent.)  worked 
between  100  and  150  days;  while  2  (=1.2  per  cent.) 
worked  less  than  100  days. 

In  1897  the  number  of  days  worked  was  2,913  more 
than  in  189B,  and  the  amount  of  coal  mined  was  148,- 
154  tons  more  than  in  1896. 

The  following  table  gives  the  amount  of  coal  mined 
per  day  in  each  county  during  1897  : 

TABLE  XXXVI. 

Tons. 

Bibb 3,305 

Blount 131 

Etowah 16 

Jefferson 16,361 

St.  Glair ; 2-. 7 

Shelby 386 

Tuscaloosa 945 

Walker 5,240 

Winston  county  did  not  report  number  of  days  worked. 

The  amount  of  coal  mined  in  each  county,  per  day, 
per  miner  in  1897  was  as  follows  : 

Bibb 3.34 

Blount 2.80 

Etowah 0.80 

Jefferson 3.47 

St.  Clair 2.28 

Shelby 1.82 

Tuscaloosa 2.94 

Walker..  .   4.10 


218         GELOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

»    «»•-'.'•.  .    .  J  '.  4   C     / 

COAL  WASHING. 

The  washing  of  coal  preparatory  to  the  manufacture 
of  coke  is  well  established  in  the  State.,  Very  nearly 
one-half  of  the  coal  turned  into  coke  is  previously 
washed.  The  washing  is  confined  mostly  to  the  slack 
coal,  i.  e.  the  coal  passing  a  screen  of  H  inch  to  If  inch 
mesh,  or  space  between  bars. 

The  following  table  .gives  the  name  of  the  washers,- 
location,  and  daily  capacity.  At  the  close  of  1897  the 
Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  and  Railway  Company  was  also 
erecting  two  400-ton  Robinson-Ramsay  washers,  one  at 
slope  4,  and  the  other  at  slope  5,  Pratt  mines. 

TABLE  XXXVII. 
COAL  WASHING  PLANTS — 1897. 


Name  of  Washer. 

Location. 

Daily 
Capacity. 
Tons. 

Operated  By  . 

Campbell  

Jasper,  Walker  Co  

300  | 

Elliot    &    Car- 
rington. 

Robinson-Ramsay 

Blossburg,  Jefferson  Co. 

600  1 

Tenn.   C  .',  I.  & 
R'y  Co. 

«<               t  t 

Blue  Creek,  Jefferson  Co 

800 

« 

<  t               «<      i 

Pratt   Mines,   Jefferson 
Co  

(3)  1200  | 

" 

«                                        i  i 

Coa'^urg,  Jefferson  Co. 

400 

Sloss  I   &  S.  Co 

Ik                                        tt 

Brookside,  Jefferson  Co. 

400 

" 

It                                        11 

Blossburg,  Jefferson  Co. 

400 

1  1 

tt                                       111 

Birmingham,    Jefferson 
Co    

400  | 

1  1 

It                                        It 

Horse  Creek,  Walker  Co 

400 

Ivy  C.  &  C.  Co. 

<<                            .            " 

Bessemer,  Jefferson  Co. 

400J 

Ho  ward  -Harri- 
son Iron  Co. 

Stein   .  .           .    .  j 

Brookwood,   Tuscalooaa 

500  I 

Standard    Coal 

( 

Co 

( 

&  Coke  Co. 

Stein   .     ... 

Lewisburg,  Jefferson  Co 

) 

40oi 

Jefferson    Coal 

I 

&  Coke  Co. 

Total  

12  Washers. 

5,800 

7  Companies. 

Coal   Washing. 

As  coal  washing  in  the   State  is  entirely  incidental  to 
the    production  of  blast  furnace  and  foundry  coke,  it 


COAL  WASHING.  219 

might  be  best  to  include  the  remarks  on  this  subject  in 
the  chapter  on  Fuel.  But  the  importance  of  it  warrants 
separate  treatment,  if,  indeed,  merely  a  short  one.  The 
growth  of  the  industry  has  been  very  rapid.  While  it  is 
true  that  in  1890  123,189  tons  of  slack  coal  were  washed, 
yet,  in  1891  the  amount  fell  to  8,570  tons.  It  seems  to 
have  begun  regularly  in  1892,  for  since  that  time  the 
amount  of  slack  washed  has  steadily  increased. 

In  some  establishments,  e.  g.,  at  Brookwood,  and  at 
Lewisburg,  the  lump  coal  is  hand-picked,  on  long  picker- 
belts.  In  all  the  establishments  now  washing  coal  only 
the  slack  is  washed. 

While  the  industry  is  of  very  recent  date,  so  far  as 
large  and  continuous  operations  are  concerned,  yet  it 
was  begun  in  the  State  in  1875-76  at  Oxmoor.  A  Stutz 
washer  was  used  there  on  .Helena  coal,  but  the  records 
cannot  now  be  secured.  It  is  of  interest  also  to  note 
that  modified  Belgian  coke  ovens  were  used  there  at  that 
time.  Both  the  washer  and  the  ovens  have  been  torn 
down  these  many  years.  For  most  of  the  coking  coals 
here  washing  is  not  necessary,  except  for  the  slack.  It 
was  to  utilize  this  that  washing  was  undertaken,  as  oth- 
erwise the  slack  was  of  little  value.  A  large  amount  of 
run  of  mines  coal  is  made  into  coke,  but  the  use  of 
washed  slack  is  steadily  encroaching  upon  this,  and  re- 
cently another  large  plant  has  entered  upon  the  business. 
We  may  expect  that  the  future  will  show  an  increasing 
proportion  of  coke  made  from  washed  slack,  as  the  de- 
mand for  the  better  grades  of  domestic  and  steam  coal 
will  make  the  use  of  slack  more  and  more  necessary. 

It  is  difficult  to  state  exactly  the  amount  of  slack 
through  a  If -inch  screen  yielded  by  coal  mining  opera- 
tions. So  much  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  coal 
itself,  and  that  of  the  seam,  as  also  upon  the  system  of 
mining,  screening,  etc.,  that  only  general  statements  can 


220         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

be  made.  It  varies  from  35  per  cent,  to  65  per  cent,  of 
the  output.  A  coal  washing  plant  for  handling  500  tons 
of  slack  per  day  of  twelve  hours  will  require  the  mining 
of  not  less  than  800  tons  of  coal,  and  may  require  1,400 
tons. 

A  table  showing  the  character  of  the  coal  made  into 
coke  in  this  State  is  given  below .  It  is  taken  from  the 
returns  made  to  the  Division  of  Mineral  Resources,  Uni- 
ted States  Geological  Survey  : 


COAL   WASHING. 


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222         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

In  1891,  of  the  2,144,277  tons  of  coal  made  into  coke 
only  0.4  per  cent,  was  washed  slack,  i.  e.,  of  every  100 
tons  of  coal  sent  to  the  ovens  less  than  one-half  a  ton 
was  washed  slack.  In  1893  there  was  fifty  times  as 
much  washed  slack  used  for  coke  as  in  1891,  and  in 
1895  more  than  140  times  as  much  as  in  1891.  There 
was  a  remarkable  increase  as  between  1892  and  1893, 
viz. :  from  4.3  per  cent,  to  21.1  per  cent.,  as  also  be- 
tween 1893  and  1894,  viz. :  from  21.1  per  cent,  to  43.1. 
From  1894  on  the  increase  in  the  use  of  washed  slack 
has  not  been  so  marked  as  in  the  previous  years. 

The  use  of  washed  slack  enables  the  mine  owners  to 
avail  themselves  of  what  would  otherwise  be  of  little 
value,  and  to  make  a  better  coke  of  this  material  than 
is  made  of  run  of  mines  coal. 

Results  of  washing  slack  coal  from  the  Pratt  seam. 
Amount  represented  about  5,000  tons. 


COAL  WASHING. 


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224         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Disregarding  the  changes  in  the  volatile  matter  and 
fixed  carbon  as  not  affecting  the  efficiency  of  the  wash- 
ing as  much  as  the  reduction  of  the  ash  and  the  sulphur  r 
some  important  deductions  may  be  derived  from  an  ex- 
amination of  these  tables.  The  Robinson  washer  does 
not  size  its  materials ;  everything  through  a  If  inch 
screen,  for  instance,  goes  direct  to  the  washer,  and  no 
attempt  at  sizing  is  made.  The  above  sizes  of  coal  were 
obtained  by  using  hand-screens,  but  they  were  not  sent 
to  the  washer  by  separate  sizes.  Of  the  material  going 
into  the  washer — 

27  per  cent,  passed  a  %  inch  screen. 

16  "  "  K  inch  "  but  was  retained  by  a  %  in.  screen 

10  "  "  %inch  "          "              "                 Kin.       " 

16  "  "  V2' inch  "         "              "                  %in.      " 

15  "  "  %inch  "          "              "                  Kin.       " 

9  "  1-inch  "          "              "                  %in. 

7  "  "  l^inch  "         "             "                    lin.       " 

Calculating  the  average  ash  from  the  ash  in  each 
separate  size  we  find  it  to  be  11.90  per  cent.  This  was 
the  ash  in  the  slack  going  into  the  washer.  Of  the  ma- 
terial coming  from  the  washer,  excluding  the  refuse 
slate,  sludge,  etc. — 

28  per  cent,  passed  a  %  inch  screen. 

21  "  -K  inch  "  but  was  retained  by  a  %  in.  screen . 

10  "  "  %inch  "                           "                 Min.      " 

13  "  "  ^inch  "'           "             "                 %'m.       " 

13  "  "  %  inch  "           "              "                Yz  in.       " 

7  "  "  linch.  "            "             "                 Kin.       " 

5  "  .-"  l^inch  "            "             "                   lin,      " 

Calculating  the  average  as  before  we  find  it  to  be 
7.4/  per  cent.,  and  the  reduction  of  the  ash  is  37.23  per 
cent.  That  is,  this  slack  lost  37.23  per  cent,  of  its  ash 
by  being  washed,  a  result  somewhat  lower  than  is  ob- 
tained by  considering  the  slack  as  a  whole  without  re- 


COAL   WASTING.  225 

gard  to  the  ash  in  the  separate  sizes.  Using  the  same 
method  for  calculating  the  sulphur  in  the  unwashed 
slack  we  find  it  to  be  1.65  per  cent.,  and  in  the  washed 
slack  1.35  per  cent.  The  sulphur,  therefore,  was  reduced 
by  18.18  per  cent. 

In  other  words  100  parts  of  ash  in  the  unwashed 
slack  become  62.77  parts  in  the  washed  slack,  and  100 
parts  of  sulphur  in  the  unwashed  slack  become  81.82 
parts  in  the  washed  slack. 


15 


226 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


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COAL  WASHING.  227 

The  analysis  of  th.6  sludge,  corresponding  to. these  re- 
sults, was — 

Per  cent. 

Volatile  matter. .  . :  .      24.73 

Fixed  carbon 44.14 

Ash 31.13 

100.00 

Sulphur 4.12 

The  pmvst  coal  that  could  be  picked  out,  by  hand, 
from  the  coal  here  in  discussion,  had  the  following  com- 
position : 

Per  cent. 

Volatile  matter 33.00 

Fixed  carbon 64.60 

Ash..  2.40 


100.00 
Sulphur 1 .25 

In  washing  operations  it  is,  however,  impracticable, 
if  not  impossible,  to  obtain  coal  of  this  degree  o*f  purity. 
Owing  to  loss  of  coal,  there  is  a  point  beyond  which  it  is 
impracticable,  to  reduce  the  ash.  This  point  varies 
with  each  coal,  and  to  some  extent  also  with  the  purpose 
for  which  the  washed  coal  is  intended.  In  this  State 
only  the  slack  coal  is  washed,  and  practically  all  the 
washed  slack  is  made  into  coke. 

Reverting  to  the  state tnent  already  made  that  all 
of  the  material  through  a  If-inch  screen  is  called  slack, 
and  is  sent  to  the  Robinsod-Ramsey  washer  without 
further  sizing,  the  question  is  :  to  what  point  shall  the  ash 
in  the  washed  coal  be  brought  in  order  that  the  washing 
may  be  considered  satisfactory? 

There  are  three  elements  entering  into  this  question : 

1.     The  amount  of  ash  in  the  original  slack. 


228         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

2.  The  waste  of  coal  in  the  operation. 

3.  The  demand  of  the  furnaces  for  a  superior  coke. 
The  maximum  amount  of  ash  to  be  left  in  the  washed 

slack  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  demands  of  the 
blast  furnaces  and  foundries  for  coke,  for  if  the  demand 
is  active  and  prices  good  the  waste  in  the  washing  is  not 
of  so  much  importance.  It  is  always  important,  and 
should  be  carefully  looked  after,  but  there  are  times* 
when  its  importance  is  greater  than  at  others.  Consider- 
ing all  the  elements  entering  into  the  question,  the- 
amount  of  ash  to  be  left  in  the  washed  slack,  whatever 
it  may  be,  is  to  be  termed  "fixed"  ash,  and  the  differ- 
ence between  this  and  the  total  ash  in  the  unwashed 
slack  is  removable  ash.  For  instance,  if  the  ash  in  the 
unwashed  slack  is  11.90  per  cent.,  and  the  ash  in  the 
washed  slack  is  7.47  per  cent.,  we  may  regard  this  lat- 
ter as  the  fixed  ash,  and  4.43  per  cent,  is  the  removable 
ash .  But  in  this  particular  case  the  reduction  of  the  ash 
from  11.90  percent,  to  7.47  per  cent,  was  not  as  good 
work  as  should  have  been  done.  With  coal  of  this  nature 
the  ash  should  be  reduced  to  6.75  per  cent,  instead  of 
7.47  per  cent.,  for  the  coke  should  not  carry  over  10  per 
cent,  of  ash. 

The  best  results  with  this  particular  coal  were  to  re- 
duce the  average  ash  by  43  per  cent.,  and  the  sulphur  by 
26  per  cent. ,  taking  the  records  over  considerable  periods. 
The  four  following  analyses  represent  about  the  best  prac- 
tice on  the  large  scale,  using  unwashed  slack,  and  the- 
Robinson-Ramsay  washer.  For  convenience  of  compar- 
ison the  average  composition  of  the  unwashed  slack  is> 
also  given  : 


COAL  WASHING.  229 

UNWASHED  SLACK DRY. 

Per  cent. 

Volatile  matter 30.06 

Fixed  Carbon 58.04 

Ash 11.90 

100.00 
Sulphur 2.40 

WASHED  SLACK DRY. 

123 

Per  cent.  Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Volatile  matter..  .     32.43  32.46  32.55 

Fixed  carbon 60.91  60.86  60.64 

Ash..                              6.66  6.68  6.81 


100.00         100.00         100.00 
Sulphur 1.91  1.89  1.93 

The  reduction  of  the  ash  was  43.5  per  cent.,  and  of 
the  sulphur  20.4  per  cent.  The  yield  of  48-hour  coke, 
over  a  H-inch  fork,  from  this  washed  slack  was  58.78 
per  cent.,  or  from  5  tons  of  coal  2.94  tons  of  coke. 

There  may  be  instances  in  which  the  Robinson-Ramsay 
washer,  on  coal  of  the  kind  herein  described,  has  done, 
perhaps,  somewhat  better  work  than  this,  but  it  is  not 
thought  that  under  average  conditions  the  results  are  any 
better  than  these. 


230 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


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COAL  WASHING.  231 

The  Robinson-Ramsay  washer  does  very  well  on  slack  in 
which  there  is  little  or  no  bone  coal,  and  where  the  dif- 
ference bt-tween  the  specific  gravity  of  tne  coal  and  the 
slate  is  considerable.  For  instance,  the  average  specific 
gravity  of  the  refuse  slate,  as  from  the  above  tables,  is 
1.71,  the  highest  being  2.2  in  the  material  through  i- 
inch  and  left  on  -J-inch  screen,  the  low-^r.  bein^  1.42  in 
the  material  through  -J  inch  screen.  Th  s»p  -ific  gravity 
of  the  pure  slate,  without  intermixture  of  coal,  may  be* 
taken  at  2.40,  but  there  is  very  little  such  material  in 
the  unwashed  slack,  for  the  refuse  slate  of  highest  spe 
cific  gravity.  2.21,  had  with  it  4  per  cent,  of  coal  which 
carried  8.9  per  cent  of  ash. 

In  washing  coal  it  is  not  so  much  a  question  of  remov- 
ing the  pure  sl.-ite  from  p,ire  coal,  because-  this  can  al- 
ways be  done,  a?  of  separating  si  *  to-carrying  coal  from 
coal  of  a  lire,  iter  or  iess  degree  of  puriry.  The  question 
as  to  wh  it  is  coal,  is  nor  g'-ivral,  but  special,  and  has  to 
be  answered  in  the  light  of  each  individual  caso.  With 
the  coal  urn  er  <  iscussion,  and  with  this  washer,  the 
writer  is  inclined  t')  think  that  material  above  1.35  sp. 
gr.  cannot  \v  11  be  considered  coal,  for  the  lowest  ash  in 
coal  recovere  1  from  refuse  ^late  by  a  solution  of  this 
specific  grav:ty  was  8.70  per  cent.  Perhaps  the  limit 
should  not  be  above  1.30.  Taking  it  at  1.30,  and  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  refuse  slate,  with  coal  attached  to 
it,  at  1.71,  the  difference  in  specific  gravity  is  0.41. 

With  this  difference,  and  with  this  particular  coal,  this 
washer  may  be  depended  upon  to  handle  a  large  amount 
of  slack  ev  ry  day,  and  to  do  this  work  very  well.  But 
it  is  not  designed  to  treat  coal  in  which  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  impurities,  such  as  bone  coal,  etc.,  ap- 
proaches that  of  the  coal  itself. 

Possibly  if  the  slack  were  properly  sized,  and  each  size 
sent  to  its  own  washer,  better  results  could  be  obtained- 


232         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OFALABAMA. 

What  was  said  to  be  the  Luhrig  system  was  introduced 
into  the  Birmingham  district  in  1890-91 ,  but  the  machines 
were  neither  properly  constructed  nor  properly  managed, 
and  the  washing  operations  soon  came  to  nothing.  It  is 
much  to  be  regretted  that  this  was  the  case,  for  when 
the  Luhrig  system  is  designed  after  a  study  of  the  coa 
itself,  there  is  no  better  coal  washing  system.  In  Ala- 
bama, however,  only  two  systems  are  in  use,  on  a  large 
scale,  the  Robinson-Ramsay  and  the  Stein.  The  Camp- 
bell tables  have  been  introduced  to  work  some  of  the 
Walker  county  coals,  and  have  given  fair  results.  Until 
the  fall  of  1897  the  Standard  Coal  &  Coke  Co.,  Brook- 
wood,  Tuscaloosa  county,  Alabama,  was  the  only  estab- 
lishment using  the  Stein  washer,  but  the  Jefferson  Coal 
&  Railway  Co.,  Lewisburg,  Jefferson  county,  has  recently 
had  built,  under  the  personal  directon  of  Mr.  Stein  him- 
self, a  very  complete  washing  plant  of  a  capacity  of  40 
tons  an  hour.  At  Brook  wood  the  Stein  washer  has  given 
excellent  results.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  detailed 
investigations  of  the  washing  operations  there  are  ac- 
cessible. In  the  proceedings  of  the  Alabama  Industrial 
and  Scientific  Society,  Volume  VI.,  Part  I.,  Mr.  F.  M. 
Jackson  said  in  regard  to 

THE    STEIN    WASHER  *. 

"It  has  enabled  the  Standard  Coal  Company  to  pro- 
duce a  coke  of  uniform  quality  and  of  extraordinary 
structure,  the  average  analysis  of  which  invariably  runs 
below  10  per  cent,  of  ash  and  1  per  cent  of  sulphur. 
The  analysis  for  the  last  six  months  shows  the  average 
ash  to  be  8.80  per  cent.,  and. sulphur  0.74  per  cent., 
whereas  the.  coke  formerly  carried  as  much  as  18  per 
cent.,  and  never  under  13  to  J  5  per  cent.,  with  sulphur 
1.50  per  cent,  to  1.75  per  cent.  The  loss  in  washing  is 
from  6i  per  cent,  to  9  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  slack, 
and  the  loss  in  coal  is  never  over  3£  per  cent,  under 


COAL    WSAHING.  233 

ordinary  conditions,  and  often  is  as  low  as  2  per  cent." 
Mr.  Jackson  refers  to  Mr.  John  Fulton's  book  on  coke 
for  further  information  in  regard  to  the  Stein  washer  at 
Brookwood.  From  this  authority  we  learn  that  it  was 
the  first  of  its  kind  erected  in  the  United  States,  having 
been  built  in  1890,  and  has  a  daily  capacity  (10  hours) 
of  500  tons.  The  following  analyses,  taken  from  Ful- 
ton, show  the  reduction  in  a&h  : 


Unwashed 

Washed 

r? 

-L  Cl    \Jflt    «-H     iC~ 

duction  of  ash 

Coal. 

Coal. 

Coke. 

in  coal. 

15.32 

8.15 

10.10 

46.9 

14.10 

7.50 

9.50 

46.9 

15  07 

6.50 

56.8 

20.83 

8.10 

10.50 

61.3 

17  .  18 

7.60 

10^50 

55.5 

16.  -8 

6.50 

9.27 

60.2 

20.90 

5.50 



73.5 

17.37 

5.40 

69.0 

18.63 

7  15 

61.7 

21.12 

4.81 

6.10 

77.5 

Average ...  17 . 69  6 . 72  9 . 33  60 . 93 

This  is  certainly  an  excellent  record.  So  far  as  con- 
cerns the  making  of  coke  from  this  coal  the  information 
is  satisfactory,  but  inasmuch  as  the  Stein  system  is 
based  on  the  sizing  of  the  coal  before  it  goes  to  the  jigs, 
it  would  have  been  more  complete  had  the  efficiency  of 
the  washing  as  referred  to  each  size  been  given.  We 
must,  therefore,  in  the  absence  of  specific  data  infer 
that  these  results  are  averaged  from  the  separate  results, 
and  yet  the  variation  in  the  efficiency  of  the  washing 
forbids  this  assumption,  for  the  removal  of  the  ash  va- 
ries from  46.9  per  cent,  to  77.5  percent.  The  Robinson- 
Ramsay  washer,  on  some  coals,  removes  from  certain 
sizes  as  high  as  72.65  per  cent,  of  the  ash,  but  does  not 
reach  anything  like  so  high  a  result,  considering  all  the 
<;oal  that  goes  into  it.  One  may  be  permitted  to  doubt 
if  the  results  at  Brookwood  represent  all  the  sizes  of 
ooal.  For  instance,  a  certain  coal  had  21.12  per  cent. 


234          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

of  ash  before  washing  and  4.81  per  cent,  after  washing,. 
a  reduction  of  the  ash  of  77  .^  per  cent.,  and  the  ash  in 
the  coke  was  6.10  per  cent.  But  one  would  like  to  know 
what  size  this  was,  and  what  proportion  this  particular 
size  bore,  |n  weight,  to  the  total  amount  of  slack  sent 
to  the  jigs.  Looked  at  from  the  standpoint  of  actual 
results,  certainly  these  figures  leave  but  little  to  be  de- 
sired, and  this,  after  all,  is  the  main  consideration.  To 
remove  77.5  per  cent,  of  ash  from  coal  carrying  21.12 
p^r  cent,  is  certainly  good  work,  but  one  cannot  refrain 
from  asking  why  this  result  was  not  reached  with  coal 
of  14.10  per  cent,  ash?  If  77.5  per  cent,  of  ash  were 
removed  from  this  kind  of  coal  the  resulting  coal  would 
carry  only  3.18  per  cent.,  instead  of  7.50  per  cent., 
which  it  did  carry  under  a  removal  of  46.9  per  cent. 

Two  facts  standout  prominently  from  these  analyses, 
viz.:  the  best  results  were  from  the  dirtiest  coal,  and 
that  from  a  coal  practically  useless  for  coke-making 
there  was  obtained  a  coal  that  makes  excellent  coke. 

There  are  two  points  of  view  in  coal  washing  opera- 
tions— practical  and  scientific —and  to  some  it  might 
appear  that  if  the  practical  results  are  satisfactory  the 
scientific  aspect  of  the  matter  may  be  left  to  take  care- 
of  itself.  But  it  will  generally  be  found  that  the  best 
practical  results  are  reached  by  the  aid  of  the  best  scien- 
tific information,  and  that  there  is  a  very  real  and  a  very 
vital  connection  between  good  practice  and  good  theory. 
A  careful  study  of  what  is  going  on  very  often  leads  to 
improvements  ;  and  from  an  examination  of  what  is- 
done  we  come  to  a  decision  as  to  what  should  be  done.. 

At  the  Florida  meeting  of  the  American  Institute 
Mining  Engineers,  1895,  Mr.  J.  J.  Ormsbee  had  a  paper 
entitled  "Notes  on  a  Southern  Coal-Washing  Plant." 
The  analyses  and  tables  in  that  paper  were  made  by 
myself,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  them  here,  as. 


COAL    WASHING.  235 

the  foregoing  analyses  and  tables  were  made  (also  by 
myself)  in  1896,  and  show  all  that  is  required  in  a  dis- 
cussion of  this  kind.  Almost  the  whole  of  Mr.  Orms- 
bee's  paper  is  taken  up  by  material  which  was  furnished 
by  myself. 

In  1890,  when  this  State  was  visited  by  the  British 
and  German  iron-masters  Mr.  Jeremiah  Head,  of  Eng- 
land, was  in  the  Birmingham  district,  and  again  in 
1894,  with  his  son,  Mr.  A.  P.  Head.  In  1897  the  elder 
Mr.  Head  published  in  the  Transactions  of  The  Feder- 
ated Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,  Newcastle- 
Upon-Tyne,  the  results  of  his  observations  in  the  prin- 
cipal coal  districts  of  the  Southern  States.  '  What  was 
said  in  regard  to  Alabama  is  reproduced  here.  The 
analyses  he  quoted  are  omitted,  for  the  reason  that  those 
already  given  in  these  pages  are  sufficient  to  enable  one 
to  judge  of  the  quality  of  the  coal  and  coke  in  the  State. 
Mr.  Head's  long  familiarity  with  such  matters,  his 
openness  of  mind,  and  frank  way  of  speaking  render 
his  remarks  extremely  interesting  and  important.  His 
inference  that  the  labor  troubles  of  1894  were  in  any 
wise  connected  witli  the  employment  of  negroes  in  the 
mines  is  a  mistake.  It  was  not  a  question  of  negro 
labor  but  of  the  recognition  of  the  Labor  Unions.  The 
effort  was  made  to  prevent  not  only  the  negroes  but 
non-union  white  miners  as  well  from  working  at  the 
wages  offered. 

Mr.  Head's  remarks  are  as  follows: 

Birmingham  District.- — We  now  come  to  the  important 
coal-fields  in  the  State  of  Alabama,  of  which  the  city  of 
Birmingham  is  the  focus,  and  to  which,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent it  owes  its  existence  ;  as  also  does  the  neighbouring 


23G  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

city  of  Bessemer,  and  several  others.  The  principal 
Alabama  coal-fields  are  : — 

Square  Miles. 

Warrior,  estimated  to  extend  over..  .    7,8.00 
Cahaba  "  "          ...       400 

Coosa  "  "         ...      345 

Total 8,545 

These  coal-fields  differ  essentially  from  those  already 
described,  in  that  they  do  not  exist  as  a  succession  of 
flat  beds  in  mountains  at  a  considerable  elevation  above 
the  sea ;  but  as  a  series  of  parallel  elliptical  synclinal 
basins  below  the  ground-level,  with  their  outcrops  rising 
to  it  all  around.  The  Forest  of  Dean  coal-field  is  of  the 
same  nature,  and  in  South  Wales  there  are  coal  deposits 
of  both  kinds.  The  general  str  ke  of  these  coal  basins 
is  from  northeast  to  southwest.  The  dip  is  naturally 
greatest  at  the  outcrop,  then  gradually  lessens  and  dis- 
appears ;  and  finally  rises  in  the  same  way  on  the  op- 
posite side. 

The  Warrior  coal-field  contains  no  less  than  fifty 
seams,  of  which  twenty-five  are  thought  to  be  workable, 
but  only  three  are  actually  worked.  The  thickness  of 
the  coal  in  these  varies  from  3  to  14  feet. 

The  Cahaba  deposit  contains  twenty  coal-seams,  of 
which  three,  from  2  to  6  feet  in  thickness,  are  worktd. 

The  total  production  of  the  Alabama  coal-field  was  : — 

In  1870 11,000  tons. 

In  1880 340,00     " 

In  1886 1,800,000     " 

In  1889 2,903,350     " 

Since  1890,  the  coal  and  iron  trades  have  been  suffer- 
ing from  a  terrible  depression,  from  whi^h  they  are  only 
just  recovering,  and  therefore  recent  statistics  do  not  in- 
dicate the  productive  powers  of  the  district. 


COAL    WASHING.  237 

The  Alabama  coal  is  mostly  of  a  coking  quality.  In 
1890,  there  were  4,647  coke  ovens  built,  and  270  under 
construction;  but,  by  the  end  of  1891  the  number  had 
increased  to  6,000.  With  the  exception  of  64  Thomas 
coke-ovens,  all  the  ovens  are  of  the  ordinary  beehive 
type — 101  to  12  feet  in  diameter,  and  5  to  7  feet  high  in- 
side. The  charge  is  usually  5  tons  of  small  coal,  which 
produces  3  tons  of  coke. 

In  the  principal,  or  Great  Warrior,  coal-field  there  are 
numerous  mines,  for  the  most  part  with  coke-burning 
plants  attached.  The  following  are  typical  ones — viz., 
Bine  Creek,  Pratt,  Adger,  Blocton,  and  Johns  mines. 

Average  analyses  of  the  coal  of  the  Warrior  coal-field, 
and  of  the  coke  made  from  washed  and  unwashed  coal, 
are  given  below  : — 

Coal.  Coke. 

^ 

From  unwashed  Coal.  From  washed  Coal. 

Fixed  carbon 61.51  87.02  90.48 

Volatile  matter. ..     31.48  1.02  1.11 

Ash 5.42  10.12  750 

Sulphur 0.92  1.77  0.83 

Moisture 0.67  0.07  0.08 

With  one  exception,  these  mines  are  all  worked  from 
the  outcrop,  the  winding  shafts  being  at  such  an  angle 
with  the  horizon  as  will  admit  of  entrance  and  egress 
on  foot.  The  tubs  are  hauled  in  and  out  by  engines  and 
wire  ropes  running  on  rollers.  There  are  three  entries 
at  the  Blue  Creek  mine,  which  are  together  capable  of 
yielding  2500  tons  of  coal  per  day. 

The  one  exception  referred  to  is  the  Pratt  mine,  which 
has  a  shaft  200  feet  deep,  worked  by  a  winding  engine 
and  head-gear  in  the  usual  way.  Pumping  is  effected 
by  a  force-pump  below,  driven  by  air  compressed  at  the 
surface.  This  mine  alone  produced  over  a  million  tons 
of  coal  in  1889. 


238  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ^ALABAMA. 

Under  the  system  of  working  prevalent  in  the  Ala- 
bama districts,  galleries  are  driven  off  the  main  slope  at 
intervals  of  300  feet.  The  intervening  body  of  coal 
is  worked  out  by  driving  stalls  40  feet  wide,  and  60  feet 
from  centre  to  centre,  for  a  distance  of  about  275  feet. 
This  leaves  a  pillar  of  20  feet  between  the  stalls,  which 
is  worked  back  to  the  heading,  as  soon  as  the  stalls  are 
finished.  In  this  way  all  the  coal  is  taken  out  between 
the  galleries,  leaving  pillars  to  protect  the  entries. 
When  the  galleries  have  been  driven  about  3,000  feet 
even  these  pillars  are  removed.  By  this  means  not  more 
than  5  per  cent,  of  the  available  coal  is  lost.  Ventila- 
tion is  usually  effected  with  one  continuous  current,  but 
sometimes  a  split-current  is  adopted.  In  that  case  a 
Guibal  fan  is  placed  at  the  air  shaft,  on  each  side  of  the 
main  haulage  slope,  so  that  each  side  is  independent  of 
the  other,  and  each  gallery  takes  its  supply  of  fresh  air 
direct  from  the  main-slope.  The  hewing  is  generally 
done  by  hand;  but  at  the  time  of  the  writer's  visit  13 
Harrison  pick  machines  were  in  use;  they  are  able  to 
uhderctit  to  a  depth  of  4i  feet  along  90  feet  of  face,  with 
one  attendant  per  shift. 

At  the  time  of  the  writer's  first  visit  to  Alabama,  in 
.1890,  the  coal-slack  was  nowhere  submitted  to  a  wash- 
ing-process before  being  charged  into  the  coke-ovens. 
The  disadvantages  arising  from  the  comparatively  poor 
calorific  value  of  the  resulting  coke  was  felt  to  be  a  seri- 
ous drawback  to  the  development  of  the  iron  trade. 
Consequently  great  attention  was  given  to  coal- washing 
plant,  and  it  was  not  long  before  the  Robinson  and  Ram- 
say coal-washer  was  introduced  and  adapted  to  Ameri- 
can requirements.  The  writer  believed  that  all  coke 
now  used  at  Alabama  blast-furnaces  was  produced  from 
washed  coal- slack.  The  beneficial  results  were  shown, 
in  the  comparative  analyses  which  he  had  given,  and 


COAL    WASHING.  289 

had  contributed  materially  to  make  possible  the  extra- 
ordinary development  which  was  at  present  in  progress 
in  the  Southern  pig  iron  trade.  At  the  Pratt  mines 
coking-plant,  flues,  built  in  the  walls  between  the  ovens, 
and  communicating  with  them,  draw  off  a  portion  of  the 
gnst's  and  convey  them  to  the  boilers,  where  they  .  are 
burnt.  It  was  claimed  that  no  less  than  375  tons  of  coal 
per  week, was  saved  by  this  arrangement. 

If  we  take  the  area  of  the  three  principal  Alabama 
coal-fields,  at*  the  estimate  already  given,  viz.,  8,545 
square  miles,  which  is  equivalent  to  5,468.800  acres, 
and  reckon  the  workable  coal  at  8  feet  4  inches  thick  in 
the  aggregate  ;  and  as  yielding  10.0  tons  per  inch  per 
acre,  we  shall  find  that  the  total  quantity  of  coal  is 
54,688,000.000  tons,  which  consumed  at  the  rate  of  the 
present  total  production  of  Great  Britain  (viz  ,  180  mil- 
lion tons  per  annum)  fixed  the  duration  of  the  Alabama 
coal-field  at  303  years. 

At  the  time  of  the  writer's  last  visit  to  Alabama,  viz., 
in  the  autumn  of  1894,  the  price  of  coke  delivered  at 
the  blast  furnaces  was  about  6s.  9d.  per  2240  pound2, 
or  half  the  current  price  in  England.  Negro  labor  is 
mainly  employed,  the  latitude  being  about  the  same  as 
that  of  Morocco,  and  the  climate  b»  ing,  therefore,  almost 
tropical,  the  population  requires  less  food  and  protection 
than  in  colder  regions.  Great  efforts  were  made  in  the 
spring  of  1894  by  the  leaders  of  the  local  trades  unions  to 
force  the  negroes  into  their  organization.  When  they 
found  that  impossible,  they  endeavored  to  frighten  them 
out  of  the  trade.  Several  were  shot,  others  maltreated, 
and.  for  a  time  mine-managers  went  about  armed  with  re- 
volvers. ,  By  aid,  however,  of  a  loyal  militia,  headed 
by  a, capable  and  courageous  governor,  the  trade  union- 
ists were  eventually  beaten ;  and  thenceforth  the  south, 
having  the  benefit  of  cheaxp  negro  labor,  has  been  able 


840         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 

to  compete  advantageously  in  all  parts    of  the    United 
States.. 

The  distance  from  Birmingham  to  the  Gulf  ports  is 
258  miles  to  Pensacola,  and  276  miles  to  Mobile.  The 
railway  rate  to  the  former  port,  including  shipping 
charges,  is  4s.  6d.  per  ton,  or  say  0.20d.  .per  ton  per 
mile.  This  rate  enables  coal-producers  to  put  coal  free- 
on-board  at  these  ports,  for,  say,  8s.  per  ton,  or  as  low 
as  bunker  coal  at  the  northeastern  ports  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. The  railway  facilities  enjoyed  by  .the  Americans 
are  in  striking  contrast  with  their  absence  here,  British 
heavy  products  having  to  pay  from  three  to  five  times 
the  above  rates  per  ton  per  mile. 

It  is  not,  however,  in  direct  coal  exportation  that 
British  producers  need  fear  American  competition.  It 
is  more  in  heavy  goods,  such  as  pig-iron,  steel  rails,  and 
billets,  which  absorb  in  their  manufacture  from  1|  to  2i 
times  their  own  weight  in  fuel.  In  the  case  of  such  ex- 
ports, only  one  railway  and  sea  freight  is  paid  on  all 
material  used  in  producing  1  ton  of  product  carried. 
Such  goods  are  also  practically  undamageable,  and  are 
not  much  affected  by  delays  of  transit ;  and  being  use- 
ful as  ballast  they  are  taben  at  low  sea-freights  along 
with  cotton  cargoes.  Alabama  pig  iron  so  favored,  is 
already  arriving  in  considerable  quantities  in  European 
markets  ;  and  for  the  time  being  at  all  events,  coals,  or 
the  products  into  the  manufacture  of  which  they  enter 
are  being  literally  "carried  to  Newcastle,"  or  right  into 
several  of  the  coal-producing  districts  of  Europe. 

Calorific  Power  of  Coal. 

The  subject  of  the  calorific  power  of  Alabama  coals 
and  cokes  has  not  received  the  attention  its  importance 
demands.  It  is  very  rarely  that  any  interest  is  mani- 
fested in  the  matter. 


COAL    WASHING. 


241 


So  far  as  is  known,  Prof.  0.  H.  Landreth  of  Vander- 
bilt  University,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  was  the  first  to  make 
tests  of  the  heating  value  of  Alabama  coals.  This  he 
did  in  the  spring  of  1885,  and  the  following  table,  taken 
from  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  1886,  p.  289, 
embodies  his  results. 


16 


24 


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.  A  M  A  H  A  OOAUx  > WASaiKOwl  A ' )  I  OCX!  Ofl  t  > 


243 


During  the  last  few  years,:  as  opportunity  offered,,,  the 
The  writer  has  made  ultimate  Unil/ies,  a|ad  cil  trifle 
tests  of  some  of  the;  principal  coa/ljs»0»f!  fkwJpfcate.  :<The 
calories  were  determined1  by  the;  j  use* oT'Lejwis  Thomp- 
son's calorimeter, and  the  British  Thermal !  Units  from 
the  calories.^ 

This  form  of  calorimeter  is  r^.^cl^pted  to  scienti- 
fic investigation,'*,',"  but,  id,  ^sM,  quite  com  mo  nl^,  in 
England  for  .appreximate  .results1." :1?Tfte  figure  obtained 
are  offered  as  ^fee^bestr-'fo^'-'BeP  hacj,.  under  the  cire-um- 
stances,  and  are  subject  to,  Correction. 

It  is  much;;tp  l?e  regretted"  thatmo  one  has  taken  the 
trouble  to  look  into  this  inatter.  Perhaps  those  swho 
were  inclined  to~  do  so  'werfe 'circumstanced  as?r' the 
writer  has  been,  iand  those"  who. 'had !both  the  time  and 
the  means  felt  no  concern  whatever  as  to  the  matter, 
Ir,  has  not  been  ^so  long  'Sirice  the* manager  of  a  coal 
pany  denied  that  his  coal  iiad  jany  carbon  in  it  a|  i 
or  any  other  impurity.  With  .this  as  an  exponent 
public  interest  one  may  readilsr  believe  that  very 
have  the  temerity  to  discuss  the;  matter. 

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244 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


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Ultimate  Analyses,  Calori 

DESCRIPTION 

Blue  Creek  Run  
"  "  washed  slack  
Henry  Ellen,  lump  
nut  
Mary  Lee,  lump,  top  
"  "  '•  l)ottori  
"  "  washed  slack  
Pratt  lump  
Pratt,  run  oi%  mines  
West  Pratt  washed  «lack  t 
Disintegrated  Pratt  washed  slack 

COAL  WASHING.  245 

In  Poole's  excellent  work  "  The  Calorific  Power  of 
Fuels,"  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1898),  are  given  many 
analyses  of  American  and  foreign  coals,  wiih  data  as  to 
their  calories  and  British  Thermal  Units. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  a  few  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  West  Virginia  coals  are  here  given,  taken 
from  Poole. 


246 


OF  ALABAMA. 


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ii      ..)«'!"•> '!••<{  <.!..'  <>1  ^' I    rno'fl  r'rnr.v  r.^iTir.'i  It 
As  was  stated  in  chapter  1.  two  processes  for  ,  concen- 

n'>l)'i1r«i  "!'?/'  >    '  r.        >/iM-!'tF  oT  vtunh » i-1!!  •>    <M  Ji  •»•!•>  ,1io^  Ollp 

, ,  trat^ng  the  low  grade  ores  of  the  .^tate  have  ,  beep ,  tried 

,t  .9^  a  ^rge  scaje ..    ^he ,  experiments^  for  the,  most  ^rt, 

were,  .confined,  to,  the  soft,  ;yr  lime-free?(red  (ores,  and,  to 

the  'hard',  or  limv  orep.     They  were  oased  on  two   dif- 

..  •>,    •  i rr '/'n; '/      '>'M!i:i.-fr>  101  <nj;i  '>M*  IM>  IvHHjn.)^  HI  nyi', 
ferent  principles,  first  the, artificial  magnetization  of  the 

.i,'i'j.>{i(    rTii','>;->    *jf\  ]    n>  «!l!'  f)(l  I         ,  <  H  >'! ')  '  >  f  i  *   ITiO'J  I    i'3''M   tH'o  '*j 

of  the  ore,  and  subsequent  separation  over  a  special 
machine ,  and  second  .the  trejatr^ent'  of  tlie  {ore ,  merely 
dried  and  crushed,  in  a  saturated  magnetic  fiel4,  this 

<TJ    in«.  ,1  -,  . '.MI' >;r    .t\  v  ii.Mu>.1r-ir>  :HK^    »°  i-n  I. •  :T-  -m.1   ni. 

process  not  requiring  that  the  ore  should  be    magnetic. 

lofljn       i-MMmif     f»iTj     OT    mi    h  T>ji-M  f>,i  l>n.i;  -no  • -i!  I    !•'!•'  -i 


r  P.  1 1 09   y/on    /ji,ffr^r)*?*f»il1.  lo  jintnou  .if-iv/ql  HiflJ     .    v:<> 
a  description  of  the  .experiments    which  he   carried   on 

<  fj   j     -T[     fninoO   <>!     JJ/>jlfH  ifl    ll""'!/!   oa.t    h(f,i:  thru    ill,  7/<u   Oo.L 

with  the  magnetizing  process,     It  was,  thought    at   the 

tit  r>    T»n  T»r     I  rP' H  IK  ROIrJilt'i   )I        .yr>BUTUl  *)nl.in   'trj;   MJfJi'iil 


/!fr;i;<   '"  r.  [  M  i  fff  '.H)   wol-»<l  ij  hl'>J  »  J  i'/»f  I'ftv  Ofli   HUv/  OTlf&nOTO 

during  the  following  year  it   was  found    that  it  was  not 

v/on        '  &>1:--    •;•;;  !'i-/''"P'irfh    lo  .-!ioM)n(J.n<h  yn.f;rTlvv-4   l<"       , 

necessary  to  render  the  ore  magnetic.     It  could   be   and 

\jfirvr.7i   -vKr^Mp,  J-j.  >-."•    !•>   SM')>  JslJlO^QJ   T^insr  -MJ!  f  l>  .ire  j  rrt^  .. 

was  concentrated  magnetically    without    being    at   all 

''"t    "ififf)  >.  r>r,m;M    Qxi  I      o1-">nofj    l)OP,.r^V0lTI'T1l   rtO*»0 

magnetic  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term. 

»v/»n&t[i  t  ojtnij   f>,i   hu.n  «>T').iri')  'Mlrilffr,-   of    iir<!    //j.n  ^tur.rn 

ut  in  order  to  contribute  to  tpe  study  of  the  Alabama 


ores,  the  red  fossi   ore  in  particuar  ap    abstract    of  the 
t\    fTOQ(ift*YX'0   off.)    rfJiV/        '^nufiul  00,7  MO!  ->Mir,  ii.f.vi;  inr>'»H 
Atlanta  paper  is  here   given,   and    the  results  from  the 

<  ,     tiioTlr,    -^irn  yi'ii',1-.      l>fi.c  /I'M  (1  i  J^VM  »i  ,  nt.p.')H  «)l  c.  jxi^'t  I   oii.J 
Wetherill  machines,  also. 

Mfi     'M!  }   no   fttroq  oji  ,).r,  ,  no'tr    to     •t»i'»-)  TMJ 


The  deposit  '6f  red1  fossilif  erouis  !  ore1  '(Clinton-)  '  attains 
maiimtirn!  thi^knds^  l  iw  (  the1  f  iiamediate    vicinity  of 

fiKf  ,',tn  ••»•.)  'jfH     8  «»)  <>  (noil  e^iltJBO  ti  ;  niB')H.  ^  boo  5!  HP,  f 


248  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Birmingham,  where  the  Eureka  seam  (now  termed  Ish- 
kooda)  i^  from  18  to  24  feet  thick.  The  upper  portion 
of  this  seam,  near  the  outcrop,  is  what  we  term  soft  ore, 
inasmuch  as  the  lime  has  been  removed  by  leaching. 
Under  cover  the  ore  becomes  hard  and  the  amount  of 
lime  it  carries  varies  from  12  to  25  percent.  In  mining 
the  soft  ore  it  is  customary  to  remove  the  over-burden 
and  to  take  the  ore  from  open  cut,  the  tracks  being  at 
different  levels  to  facilitate  the  handling.  The  over- 
burden varies  in  thickness  from  a  few  feet  to  40  feet, 
and  is  stripped  on  the  dip  for  distances  varying  from  50 
to  300  feet  from  the  crop.  The  dip  of  the  seam  increas- 
es as  one  goes  towards  the  southwest,  the  average  being 
close  to  20  degrees.  In  the  early  years  of  iron-making 
iii  the  district  it  was  customary  to  remove  from  15  to  20 
feet  of  the  ore  and  to  send  it  all  to  the  furnace,  but  of 
late  the  mining  has  been  restricted  to  10  or  12  feet  and 
there  has  been  left  in  the  ground  from  8  to  10  feet  of 
ore.  This  lower  portion  of  the  seam  is  now  considered 
too  low  in  iron  and  too  high  in  silica  to  permit  its  pro- 
fitable use  in  the  furnace.  It  carries  about  40  per  cent, 
of  iron  and  about  35  per  cent,  of  silica,  the  silica  in- 
creasing with  the  vertical  depth  below  the  mining  mark. 
Not  less  than  500,000  tons  of  this  low-grade  ore  is  now 
stripped,  the  upper  10  or  12  feet  of  workable  ore  having 
been  removed  and  sent  to  the  furnaces.  Nothing  re- 
mains now  but  to  shift  the  tracks  and  to  mine  the  lower 
portion  also,  thus  making  the  entire  thickness  of  the 
seam  available  for  the  furnace.  With  the  exception  of 
the  Irondale  seam,  5  feet  thick  and  carrying  about  53 
per  cent,  of  iron,  at  no  point  on  the  mountain  can  the 
entire  seam  be  mined  for  furnace  purposes  unless  the 
lower  portions  be  subjected  to  some  process  of  concen- 
tration. The  Irondale  seam  is  distinct  from  the  big,  or 
Ishkooda  seam  ;  it  carries  from  6  to  8  per  cent,  more  of 


LOW    GRADE    ORES.  249 

iron,  also  more  alumina,  and  can  be  profitably  mined 
from  wall  to  wall.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  with 
the  Ishk'ooda  seam.  Ic  is  not  likely  that,  on  the  aver- 
age, more  than  one-half  of  it  can  be  used  now  for  the 
manufacture  of  iron,  and  unless  the  remaining  portion 
can  be  concentrated,  it  is  practically  of  no  use  whatever. 
The  stripping  that  has  been  done  i-^  chargeable  to  the 
ore  mined  and  sold,  so  that  the  lower  portion  of  the 
seam  can  be  mined  at  a  very  slight  expense.  It  can  be 
loaded  into  the  railroad-cars  and  laid  down  in  any  stock 
house  in  the  vicinity  of  Birmingham  for  40  cents  per 
ton.  This  statement  applies  to  such  ore  as  has  been 
already  stripped,  and  from  which  the  upper  portion  has 
been  removed  for  use  in  the  furnace,  leaving  the  ques- 
tion of  tracks  and  loading-appliances  already  provided 
for.  It  applies,  therefore,  to  what  may  be  considered  a 
limited  amount  of  ore,  and  it  is  so  in  a  certain  sense 
and  as  compared  with  the  enormous  deposit  of  such  low- 
grade  material  along  the  mountain.  A  concentrating- 
plant  taking  500  tons  of  ore  per  day  and  wo.  king  stead- 
ily 365  days  in  the  year  would  require  nea  iy  3  years  to 
use  up  what  is  now  ready  for  mining;  ar.ri  when  we 
consider  that  the  mining  of  the  upper  portion  is  going 
on  all  the  while,  thus  increasing  the  amount  of  the  low- 
grade  ore  left,  it  is  not  likely  that  such  a  plant  would  be 
able  to  uso  the  uncovered  portion  in  five  years,  if  the 
removal  of  the  better  ore  should  cease  on  the  first  day 
of  October,  1895.  So  much  for  the  Ishkooda  opening; 
but  there  are  several  other  mines  along  the  mountain, 
within  2  and  3  miles  of  Ishkooda,  that  exhibit  the  same 
conditions,  and  I  feel  warranted  in  saying  that  the 
available  supply  of  25-cent.  ore  will  not  fall  much  short 
of  1,000,000  tons. 

When  one  considers    the  immense    amount    of    low- 
grade  ore  that  has  not  been  touched,,  from   Grace's  Gap 


GEOLOGICAL  ^pRVE^  OF  ALABAMA. 


fl] satisfied  that  for  many   years  tOj  pomp, the    supply  or  pre 

t  for  a  cpncentpating-plapt  will  %    am,£>Je- »  ( '^m  I*    fr 

^Ipnpwledge  of  the  subject  an4  fro  in  an    acquaintance    of 

f  several  years, with  the  ore-situation  in  -} the  'Birmingham 

s  district,  I  have  no  hesitation  in  ^saying  .that  a   concen- 

tf  tratingrylant  of  the  capacity   menticme.^    abovev    would 

(no^  experience  anv  ^serious!  (  difficulty ^in/^  obtaining  low- 

jgrade  pres  suitable  for  Goncentration  and(  at ;  a  .price  that 

rf^A^WW?!  *  Jftfr»ftHft^  felTSR^i  ?P?ffRr  out  i'  i  -h,;<  ,i 

•i  *'j    .-;lfi')'»    nj-     -t')l   rif/;r!vftin)'riM      !o  A^'ii'M/  '»rli   IM  '*vnoH 
CRUSHING  THE  ORE. 

Uc>')<l     ^.i;n      ;-•./',     •'»!<>      rf')nH  </;  «yil<[j(j.H   trr>ni'>t.»;t^  RJflT      .no.) 

1  The  size  of  the1 '6re !  racist  suitable 'for^magnetizatioh- is 
that  ot'ah'en's  egg,  ^With^uch  pieced  the  -magnetiza- 
tidn  is'  through -e veil1  td  the  ce'nter^ahd  when  th!e  prop er 
heat  hafe  been  used  there  is  no  sign  of  lou'ping,  -or  incip- 

;  ient  fusion.  -'The'ore  is"  df  a  deep  'Velvety  bladk': color. 
-At  iittes  the  grains  of  ;satfd  are  s'dniewhat'  Whitened !but 

"fdi-th'e  most  part  they 'are1  boated  Witli  'a  film  one  of 
black  magnetic  oxide:  P|  The  'grains  (df  ^sand  '  are-  Tdiarided 

' !  in1  'the 'original  ore,1  atid  in1 'the  ^m'aign^ti^ed  drfef  'tftey  'are 
' ' vbf  fth4  ;same  -'ph-V sl'cJall '  ''nature . ' [ ; If  tH^  ;heat j  b;e"  tb(6  :high 

- '  'tfh&  sand  adheres  closely !  td  the' '  W&;  • !' incipient  fusion 
having  'se(15  !ih ,!  'and !  the1  subsequent !  ;separatidn;  ijs l  'i^o* ' » so 

'as 'large  as  a' 'cbcdah'trt  uniformly  t6!  th'e   cdh'ter^but 

there  is  danger  is  using  ore  of  this  'sizes ;   for1 '  whefl :  the 

'interior  is  at ia 'suitable '"ter9'pei*ature  the'extefidr!'*y  !apt 

H  t6  •  be'  td6  hdt ,  and1  there"  niay  a;rise j  'mdr'e  or  les's'  tendency 

'towards'  Iduping,     We^  ;h'ave  !  fotmd' !  the    iriost '  'stiitable 

'  heat  'is  a'fullred  and ' it  !is'  'difficult  to1  maintain  a   large 

terior  may  just  right  while  the  interoir  of  the  lu'mp 
'not  be  red-hot /and 'When  !brttken  will  still  be  unreel  oiced. 


A  M  AM  A.I  /     IjO'W.GRAtKK  Q&EiS.K  MOM  l» 


sa:  large* 

netized  costing;  o>n  the  outside    extending  ,a  ^hir-d,  ^,  a 

halfiof  ,thq  distance  to  .the,  Center.    :Thte,  Qoat,Uag);i>fQyld 

be  of  ^^uHWaiplc  colpr,  ,  while,,,  $he:  ,  center 

shpm-tt'be,  .original  iie^.  jcplqr,  ;qf 

a  very  large  nunaber  of  :piece^sfro^nt;J>tetkilqjUn4er 

ing  .cpu.ditlops  of  wpr 

tlaat  ^as  .m^gn^.fci^  at 

outsicle.  ,     ,     ,,,,,      „,(,    ,,     ,,|;,,    (|^-i,,  HI   ni   HA 

It  was  our  practice  to  ,  charge.  *tke,;kilpL^;ith(;pf  e^gs,  as 
,  ^early^ifpr^a  jnt(fi^e  ^.pos^i^le,  SQ.^Uat  ,.,  fc^  gas  ,^r- 
/  pqeu^s,  .should;  meet  wife  abouf  '^ne:  .^ftra^  ,  rW^WWn  as 
i  they,  tr-aver.se,  ,  tjie  sp.a^e  -. 

and 


,.:, 

,  orq,,  the,  cabs  beJLag  loaded  witli 

of  fine  ore  is  .necessarily  .made  ,  in  thq,  ,  k,Un   itselfi  t>y  Jbhe 
gtf.  t}ae,qre,;  against  itself;,  and  a<gain^t(  the  w.aj^ls,  of 


magnetic  as  .^he  l^oap^.hut.^o  rppire  s,o  ;{  and  tberq 
nat  be  any  £e,r,}ous  .o^o^ptiP11.  .^9  i^  jP  W^Acei  i  W<  Aft 
did  it,  jjp.t.-lpia^lp  (^p,.in[tip(ith^i  ,g^Srpjprt^ 
regular  fl^vffp/^as 

,  is  noteworthy  tjiat 

,  ore^  this  being  con  fined;  entirely  to  ;  the 

We  used  3  tons  of  coal,  per  day  Oif  24  hours) 
had  some  390,000  feet  of  gas  for  110  tons;of!or 
feet  perf  -to»,  i  ,  ,This  .amount  of  :,gas,  .'would  iheat;  thft  ope<  to 
a  full  redness  and  magnetize  itu.  ,  ,  Fro^m  four  to;  six  hours 
after  starting  the  fires  in  the  producer^,  ,the,  gas;jQan,j  be 
ignited  all  around  the  kiln  at  the  .several  igniting  ;doors. 

,  Analyse^  of  the-g^s  from  tJiOMmomentiiat-i  wihich  it  ;^ill 
ignite  until  .it  is.of  i  la,,  brigjat  orange-red  c('ior,j  ^ap4>A^i  at 
its  best,  are  herewith  given.  The  sample^  w$re,,  drawn 
frora^the  p^odupei;  iDftmediateily  iLp.faant.pf.ith^pip?  con- 


252  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF   ALABAMA. 

veying  the  gas  into  the  kiln,  care  being  taken  that  no 
air  was  drawn  into  the  sampler.  They  were  analyzed 
at  once  for  carbonic  acid,  oxygen,  carbonic  oxide  and 
hydrogen,  acetylene  not  being  determined,  nor  marsh 
gas,  although  this  latter  compound  exists  in  producer- 
gas  to  the  amount  of  some  3  per  cent.  Acety- 
lene seldom  occurs  in  producer -gas  beyond  a 
few  tenths  of  one  per  cent.,  and  may  be  neg- 
lected. As  to  marsh  gas,  it  does  not  seem  probable 
that  this  gas,  in  and  for  itself,  can  be  used  to  magnetize 
ore,  as  the  reactions  that  occur  when  it  is  passed  over 
red-hot  ore,  no  other  gas  being  present,  are  theoretically 
not  such  as  would  lead  to  a  magnetization  of  the  ore.  I 
am  unable  to  speak  with  confidence  on  this  point,  how- 
ever, as  it  is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty  to  prepare  this 
gas  in  a  state  of  purity.  The  ordinary  reactions  by 
which  it  is  prepared  from  sodium  acetate  yield  a  gas 
which  is  seriously  contaminated  with  hydrogen,  render- 
ing it  useless  for  magnetizing  experiments,  as  the  hydro- 
gen is  itself  a  powerful  reducing  agent,  and  the  magnetic 
oxide  produced  by  passing  marsh-gas  from  this  source 
over  ore  would  be  due  to  the  hydrogen  primarily.  The 
question  of  the  effect  of  pure  marsh-gas  on  red-hot  ore  is 
one  of  scientific  rather  than  of  practical  moment,  as  the 
producer-gas  usually  employed  contains  it  only  to  the 
maximum  extent  of  some  3  per  cent. 

It  can,  of  course,  be  prepared  pure  from  zinc  methyl ; 
but  none  of  this  substance  could  be  procured  from  deal- 
ers in  this  country,  and  the  question  has  been  dropped 
for  the  present. 

The  effective  agents  in  magnetizing  ore  are  carbonic 
oxide  and  hydrog9n  and  if  the  producer  is  operated 
under  the  best  conditions  there  will  be  enough  of  these 
to  do  the  work. 

The  average  content  of  carbonic  oxide  while  magnet- 


LOW    GRADE    ORES  . 


253 


izing  was   25   per  cent.  ;    of  hydrogen,  13  per  cent.  ;    of 
carbonic  acid,  6  per  cent.  ;  and  of  oxygen,  0.40  per  cent. 

MAGNETIZATION  AND  CONCENTRATION  OF  IRON-ORE. 
TABLE    XL. 

Analyses  of  the  Producer-  (las   Used. 


Carbon- 
ic Acid. 

c 

0> 
00 

>» 
H 

0 

Carbon- 
ic Oxide 

T3  o> 

£» 

Remarks. 

14.00 

None. 

8.46 

5.93 

Bed  4  inches  ;  color  dark  gray  ;  1 
after  starting  fire. 

hour 

13.20     None. 

j 

6.00 

5.60 

Bed  6  inches  ;  color  dark  gray  ;  2 
after  starting  fire. 

hours 

5.00 

0.40 

30.80 

12.90 

Bed  2%  feet;  color  grayish-red  ;  burns 
well. 

6.80 

0.40 

25.10 

11.90 

Bed  3  feet;  color  orange-yellow 
lent  gas. 

,  ex- 

8.00 

None 

24.09 

13.84 

Bed  4  feet  ;  color  orange-red  ;  good  gas 

4.30 

1.83 

22.18 

12.63 

6.00 

0.60 

25.40 

14.60 
10.05 

9.00 

0.40 

21.40 

Average. 

The  analyses  of  the  waste  gases  showed  that  all  the 
carbonic  oxide  and  the  hydrogen  were  consumed  in  the 
kiln. 

After  the  gas  been  burning  all  around  for  10  hours, 
the  di  charging  of  the  kiln  can  begin.  It  will  be  under- 
stood that  the  first  10  or  15  tons,  lying  at  the  bottom  of 
the  kiln  and  thus  beyond  the  limit  of  the  heat,  are  not 


254:<  '"'• 


GEOLOGICAL 


Ja1l"aM  must  be'  seat  bae"k  a/s  ¥  atv  <c&e  r  <  -This  '  - 
happens  f  only  'When  the  kil;n  fe  'star  ted,  'fory  after  this  po^-1  >  -» 
tion  of  ore  has  been  removed  so  as  to  give  place  to  ore 
that  Has  beea  su&clently  heated  aaa  magnetized^  ail  or 
the  ore  coming  to  the  shutes  has  traversed  the  zone  of 
highly-heated  gas  and  has  been  exposed  to  it&-  influence. 
As  the  ore  is  withdrawn  from  the  shutes  fresh  ore  is 
charged  into  the  ,kiln",,and  the  operation  is  continuous. 
When  the  ore  comes  down  to  the  shutes  red-hot,  the  cur- 
rent of  gas  is  changed,  and  instead  of  passing  into  the 
combu'^tion-charalDe^,1  |i/t  ,  is'  .passed  into  ;the'  magnetizing- 
chamber,  from  which  it  passes  over  the  ore  unmixed 
with  ajr  and  therefore  capable  of  reducing  tU.^,,  ferric, 
oxide  in  the  ore  into  tire  magnetic  oxide.  In  experiment- 
ing with  the  kiln,  we  found  that  even  when  the  gas-valve 
leading  into  the  combustion-chamber  was  Closed  and  the 
valve  leading  into  the  magnetizing  chamber  opened, 
there  was  still  too  much  air  going  into  the  kiln,  and  we 

,y  =  »    ,    wull   lY-M^nirm    'ft>i;<>     ;  .'•  V  P       '     °         •  .,->     [ji    <}[     ri^        Of    {! 

luted  the  shute-doors  with  clay.  It  was  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  prevent  the  gas  from  burning  in  the  ore  and  thus 
wasting  its  reducing  power;  but  by  constant  attention 
and  keeping  the  shute-doors  well  luted,  we  succeeded  in 
preventing  this  to  a  great  extent.  The,  reducing-gas 
was  passed  over  the  ore  for  an  hour,  when  one  or  two 
shutes  were  opened  and  a  cab  of  ore  withdrawn.  It  was 
at  a  full  red  heat  when  drawn,  and  was  spread  out  on 
the  ground  to  cool.  It  retained  its  heat  for  several 
hours,  but  when  finally  cool  enough  to  handle  was  of  a 
dull:  black  color,  arid  tvhen  coarsely  powdered,  highly 
magnetic."  '1%$  -temperatifire  -of  'the  kiln  pas  measured  bj^. 
an  Uehling-Steinbart  pneumatic  pyrometer  of  the  latest*  (  • 
,  tinted*  ffto  !  900  de£:«fcd  '1350-^guiiFailt^ 
feita^llOO'de5^.*1'  '  n^'- 

of  "the  most  trying  difficulties  w;e  experienced  was 
in  getting  the  6re!  jdoWn  to  the  shutes  thoroughly  and 


uniformly  'magnetized,     Sometimes  the  greate'r*  JHKff 
a  cab'  would  be'  well  magnetized  Svtiite  a  ^oi'tioii  *  of  it 
taken  'from  the  same  stiute  afc  the  j:samei   time'  'ivfrtild  not   ' 
be   magnetic  at  all.     This  was  found  to  be  due  to  the" 
fact!tiiatsH  nacl  not'been  exposed  to  'th^'  gas  for  a  suffi- 
cient length  of  time  .     A!S  probi  of  t'h  is1,'  '  t   took  some1  '  6^  ^ 
the  gas  that  was  going  into   the  kiln  'an  $  '  'some  of  tnd 
non-magnetized  ore  frbin  a  cafe,'  heated  ttie'ore'to  a  f  ul'l  ! 
redness  in  a  glass  tube  and  pa&syd  ;tlib>i£a;s%vW'it!U)Ii;J{? 
became'  magnetic  iiiJ  :a:  :  fe'w"  moments^  njAfter  this,  ^w^*" 
allowed  the'  gas'  to  paBs  '  ovei*  the'  '  ^'re  for  ;a(  longer  tith'e  ','  '  ' 
7y  !I;  1        '1  ( 


air  excluded,  we  obtained  better  results.     One  thing  'Wa'sl  ''' 
proved  to(Q\ir  entire  .satisfaction,  viz.,  that  when  the  ore 
was  exposed  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  at  a  full  red 
heat  t0  a  jpur^ei^tjOf  producer-gas,  it  beca^ne.;higl)ly  n^ag- 
netd<3,[and  tji8ft,,this  e^eqt.w.as  to  /a  considerable  extent,  u. 
independent  ,  &$  ,  the  •••>,&!%$  ,iOf  ,  ,  the  lumps,.:    The,  idifficulty 
already  alluded  to,  the  tendency  of  the  larger  Jumps;  $$,,. 
loup,  was  hard  to  overcome.    The  outside  of  these  pieces 
would   be    magnetic   while    the  interior   would  ;  not  b^ 
changed  at  all,  or  at1  best  would  exhibit  'very  feeble  mag- 
netism 

Now  and  then  a  lump  as'  larjgfe   as1  *a  '  cdcba'-ftut1  Would' 
come  down  in   a    very   satisfactory   conditioh,  biit:   M 
the  whole  it  was  found  desirable  to  exclude  these  large 
lumps  froiii  the  kiln  'and  tb(  ubie  ore1  'thatT'wus1  6f   the1  size 
of  a  hen's  egg.     Another  serious  difficulty  'Was  in  the 
irregular  manner  in  which'  'thd!  !ote  came  down  to  the  ' 
shute's  '  '   M'a  kiln  of  this  'cons  true  tlb  A'  it  Wye'ry  'difficult?  M> 
to  get    a   uniform   heat    all    round.     At   times  the  kil;nf!l 


and  too  cool  somewhere  else.     When  it  became  too  h*6'l!!  ! 
on  one  side  there  was  nothing  to  do  but  to  draw  ore 
from  the  shutes  on  that  side  and  let  the  ore  descend  until 


256  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY    OF  ALABAMA. 

the  normal  heat  was  restored.  This  naturally  disturbed 
the  course  of  the  operation  elsewhere  in  the  kilns,  and 
had  a  tendency  towards  allowing  insufficiently-magnet- 
ized ore  to  come  down  to  the  shutes  and  in  a  measure  to 
occupy  a  space  outside  of  the  area  of  magnetization. 
When  the  operation  was  proceeding  satisfactorily,  we 
got  from  the  kiln  110  tons  of  ore  per  day  of  24  hours, 
and  worked  in  this  way  for  several  weeks.  A  part  of 
the  ore  was  magnetic,  and  a  part  was  not.  It  was 
culled  for  separation.  The  separating  machine  could 
not  treat  half  the  ore  that  was  magnetized  every  day  ; 
and  the  remainder  was  sent  direct  to  the  furnace  without 
separation. 

CONCENTRATION  OF  THE  MAGNETIZED  ORE. 

This  was  effected  over  a  Hoffman  separator,  at  first, 
and  afterwards  over  a  Payne  machine,  which  proved  to 
be  an  excellent  separator.  The  magnetized  ore  was  first 
sent  to  a  No.  3. 

Gates  crusher,  screened  over  a  revolving  screen  of  8 
meshes  per  linear  inch,  the  heads  from  the  screen  going 
into  a  pair  of  rolls  and  thence  into  the  conveyor  with 
the  tails  from  the  screen,  and  so  on  to  the  bin  above  the 
separator.  Between  the  end  of  the  conveyor  and  the 
bin  there  was  another  screen  of  quarter-mesh  size  to  re- 
move the  small  lumps  that  jumped  the  rolls  or  passed 
down  between  the  ends  of  the  rolls  and  the  housing. 
All  the  material  going  to  the  separator  passed  this  screen 
and  nearly  all  passed  a  screen  of  8  meshes  per  linear 
inch . 

The  fineness  of  this  material  is  given  in  the  following 
table. 


LOW  GRADE  ORES.  257 

TABLE   XLI. 

Fineness  of  Material  Going  to  the  Separator. 

Per  cent. 

Left  on  8-mesh  screen 3.00 

Through  8-  "        "       and  on  10-mesh 6.50 


I 

10-  and  o 

n  20-mesh 

28  50 

( 

9Q-            " 

30-    " 

31  50 

t 

30-        " 

40-     u     ... 

6.50 

t 

40-        '  ' 

50-     " 

9  50 

I 

50- 
60-        " 

60-     "     
70-     " 

2.50 
3  50 

; 

70-        " 

80-    " 

None 

4 

70- 

100-     "              ... 

3  50 

t 

100-mesh. 

5.00 

This  represents  the  average  fineness  of  tho  material 
sent  to  the  separator  during  the  course  of  the  experi- 
ments, as  several  determinations  were  made  from  time 
to  time. 

It  was  not  found  practicable  to  run  the  separator  at  a 
greater  speed  than  would  give  about  700  pounds  of  heads, 
per  hour,  as  we  had  difficulty  in  disposing  of  our  tail- 
ings in  greater  quantity  than  this,  owing  to  the  confined 
space  in  which  we  had  to  work.  The  separation  was 
attended  by  a  good  deal  of  dust  until  we  regulated  the 
feed  to  this  point,  and  even  then  it  was  far  from  pleas- 
ant. Special  care  has  been  taken  of  this  in  the  plans 
for  the  alteration  of  the  plant ;  and  we  shall  remove  the 
dust  by  means  of  an  air-blast.  The  average  content  of 
iron  in  the  ore  sent  to  the  separator  was  45  per  cent,  and 
of  silica  30  per  cent  The  average  content  of  iron  in 
the  heads  was  58.86  per  cent,  and  of  silica  11.51  per 
cent.  ;  in  the  middlings  51.12  per  cent,  of  iron  and  21 
per  cent,  of  silica. 

At  the  very  start  we  found  that  some  portions  of  the 
ore  were  more  highly  magnetic  than  others,  and  that 
17 


258         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

the  less  magnetic  material  manifested  a  strong  tendency 
to  go  into  the  tails  and  not  into  the  middlings.  In  other 
words,  the  tails  contained  magnetic  ore  that  should  have 
gone  either  into  the  heads  or  at  any  rate  into  the  mid- 
dlings. Adjustment  of  the  machine  and  changes  of  the 
amperage  enabled  us  to  correct  this  to  some  extent ;  but 
we  did  not  succeed  in  doing  away  with  it  entirely,  and 
throughout  the  entire  course  of  the  work  we  were 
troubled  with  incomplete  separation.  Repassing  the 
tails  over  the  machine  always  resulted  in  obtaining 
more  heads  and  middlings  th-m  in  the  first  pass,  and  we 
finally  concluded  that  it  was  practically  impossible  to 
get  even  tolerable  tails  by  one  pass.  To  this  conclusion 
it  seems  that  all  have  come  who  have  tried  magnetic 
separation,  even  of  highly  magnetic  natural  magnetite, 
viz.,  that  it  is  in  all  cases  advisable  to  use  two  machines 
or,  better  still,  two  drums,  and  to  pass  the  middlings 
and  tails  from  the  first  to  the  second,  increasing  it  may 
be  the  amperage  on  the  second  machine  or  drum,  arid, 
perhaps,  also  regrinding  the  material  from  the  first  ma- 
chine before  sending  it  to  the  second.  As  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  expense  in  the  magnetic  separation 
of  ore  is  incurred  before  the  ore  is  sent  to  the  separator, 
the  additional  expense  of  sending  it  to  another  machine, 
even  should  it  be  reground,  is  comparatively  slight.  It 
may  be  of  interest  to  some  to  know  the  distribution  of 
the  iron  and  the  silica  in  the  heads  according  to  the 
fineness.  I  give,  therefore,  in  the  following  table  some 
analyses  covering  this  point.  Numerous  analyses  have 
been  made  to  show  just  where  the  best  ore  was,  and  if 
-finer  grinding  would  enable  us  to  improve  the  quality 
of  the  heads.  From  these  I  select  the  following  : 


LOW    GRADE  ORES.  259 

TABLE  XLII. 

Analysis  of  Heads  According  to  Fineness. 

Original  Ore:  Insoluble,  28  per  cent.  ;  Iron,.  44  per  cent. 

Percent.  Insoluble.  Iron. 

Left  on  8-mesh  screen 3.00  12.76  63.20 

Through  8- on  10-mesh  3creen.  .         6.50  12.50  62.70 

10-  "    20-     "                   ..       28.50  13.00  61.30 

20-"    30-     "                   ..       31.50  13.40  60.00 

30-  "   40-     "                  ..         6.50  13.70  60.30 

40-  "    50-     "                   ..         9.50  15.40  58.25 

50-  "    60-     "                   .  .         2.50  13.90  60.80 

"          60-  "    70-     "                  ..         3.50  14.00  60.70 
70-  "   80-     "                  ..      None. 

70-  "  100-    "                  ..         3.50  14.70  60.00 

100-mesh..                                 5.00  16.10  57.00 


Average 13.94          60.42 

It  might  be  inferred  from  these  analyses  that  the 
amount  of  iron  decreased  with  the  fineness  ;  but  that 
this  is  not  always  tV.e  case  will  be  apparent  from  the 
following  analyses  representing  the  heads  at  another 
period  of  the  work  : 

TABLE  XLIII. 

Analysis  of  Heads  According  to  Fineness. 

Original  Ore  :  Insoluble,  32  per  cent. ;  Iron,  40  per  cent. 

Per  cent.    Insoluble.    Iron. 


Left  on  10-mesh  screen  

....       2.90 

12.65 

59.15 

Through  10-  on   20-mesh  

....     18.30 

12.58 

59.09 

k<          20-    "    30-     "      ...... 

....     21.70 

12.72 

59.25 

80-    "    40-     "     

....     10.00 

12.65 

59.20 

40-    "    50-     "     

.  ...     10.00 

12.40 

59.48 

50-    "    60-     "     

.,..     13.30 

11.05 

61.73 

60-    "    70-     "     

....       8.50 

11.08 

61.80 

70-    "    80-     "     

.  .  .  .     None. 





70-    "  100-     "     

....     10.00 

11.45 

61.40 

100-mesh  

.       5.30 

10.80 

62.00 

Average 11.93          60.33 


260  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  fixed  rule  as  to  this 
matter  ;  sometimes  the  percentage  of  iron  increases  with 
the  fineness  and  sometimes  it  does  not.  It  may  be 
chargeable  to  the  nature  of  the  ore,  if  easily  pulverized 
or  not,  the  degree  of  magnetism  in  the  ore  (about  which 
very  little  is  known,  whether  the  ore  be  natural  or  arti- 
ficial magnetite) ;  the  intensity  of  the  current ;  the  speed: 
of  the  machine  ;  or  a  combination  of  these  causes. 

So  far,  nothing  has  been  said  as  to  the  removal  of 
phosphorus.  This  element  is  present  in  the  ore  to  about 
0.30  per  cent.,  but  it  is  not  removed  in  the  separation. 
It  seems  to  be  present  as  phosphate  of  lime,  entirely 
amorphous,  and  most  intimately  mixed  with  the  iron,. 
We  have  not  been  able  to  remove  it,  or  even  to  diminish 
it  to  any  considerable  extent.  No  matter  how  finely  the 
ore  is  ground,  the  heads  still  carry  more  phosphorus 
than  is  allowed  in  Bessemer  ore.  It  can  be  entirely  re- 
moved by  chemical  means,  and  brought  from  0.30  to 
0.008  per  cent,  at  one  operation.  It  has  been  found  that 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  will  dissolve  out  the  phosphorus 
from  the  heads  without  affecting  the  content  of  iron  se- 
riously, and  in  this  manner  heads  carrying  from  58  per 
cent,  to  60  per  cent,  of  iron  and  0.008  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phorus have  been  prepared. 

A  word  now  as  to  the  cost  of  carrying  out  this  process  on 
scale,  let  us  say,  of  100  tons  of  raw  ore  per  day  of  twenty- 
four  hours.  We  will  assume  that  the  plant  is  erected 
on  the  mountain  in  immediate  proximity  to  the  ore,  and 
that  the  gravity  system  is  employed  for  conveying  the 
ore  from  the  mine  to  the  kiln  and  from  the  kiln  through 
the  various  operations  until  the  concentrates  are  loaded 
on  the  cars. 

We  will  allow,  also  that  it  requires  3  tons  of  raw  ore  to 
1  ton  of  concentrates  carrying  55  per  cent,  of  iron,  and. 
that  the  yield  of  such  concentrates  from  one  kiln  is  27 


LOW    GRADE    ORES.  261 

tons  per  day  of  24  hours.  In  other  words,  we  allow  that 
from  a  kiln  holding  100  tons  of  raw  ore  we  obtain  daily 
£1  tons  of  magnetized  ore  fit  for  separation.  The  cost 
of  producing  1  ton  of  concentrates  of  55  per  cent,  iron 
will  be  about  as  follows  : 

3  tons  of  raw  ore,  at  25  cents, $0. 75 

Crushing,  including  labor, •. 0  05 

Discharging   kiln 006 

Crushing,  rolling  and  screening 0.05 

Separating  and  disposing  of  tailings 0.05 

Superintendence, 0.04 

Night  foreman 0.02 

Engineers, 0  04 

3  tons  of  coal  for  producer,  at  $1.25,. 0  04 

3  tons  of  coal  for  boilers, 0.04 

Oil,  supplies,  etc., 0  01 

$1.15 

These  are  the  estimates  that  have  been  made  from  our 
experience  with  the  process  at  Bessemer,  where  we  had 
to  work  under  unfavorable  conditions,  and  wh  re  the 
cost  per  ton  of  55  per  cent,  concentrates  was  40  cents 
higher  than  the  above  figures.  If  we  are  able  to  in- 
crease the  percentage  of  iron  in  the  concentrates,  as  we 
expect  to  do,  'he  cost  per  ton  will  be  lessened  accord- 
ingly. On  the  other  hand,  should  we  not  be  able  to  do 
this,  but  have  to  allow  for  3  tons  of  raw  ore  per  ton  of 
55  per  cent,  concentrates,  as  above,  the  cost  will  not  vary 
much  from  that  given,  viz.,  $1.15. 

We  come  now  to  the  question,  is  a  ton  of  55  per  cent, 
ore  of  the  fineness  already  given,  worth  $1.15  at  the 
works,  or  $1.30  at  the  furnace?  In  valuing  an  ore  for 
furnace  practice,  two  methods  may  be  used,  the  one  based 
on  the  nature  of  the  iron  desired  to  be  made  from  it, 
whether  special  high-grade  Bessemer  or  basic  open- 
hearth  :  the  other,  disregarding  this  feature  of  the  ques- 


262         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

tion,  as  based  on  ordinary  grades  of  foundry-,  forge- and 
mill-iron  made  in  this  district.  Both  methods  are  in 
common  use,  and  both  are  independent  of  the  reducibil- 
Hy  of  the  ore,  this  factor  of  the  question  rot  being  gen- 
erally considered. 

The  matter,  then,  narrows  down  to  the  question  as  to- 
whether  this  ore,  under  the  conditions  now  maintaining 
in  the  Birmingham  district,  is  worth  to  the  furnace  $1.30 
per  ton  delivered. 

This  may,  perhaps,  be  answered  to  the  best  advantags 
if  we  inquire  as  to  its  value  if  it  alone  were  to  be  used 
iin  the  furnace.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  unless  it  be  made 
nto  briquettes,  eggettes,  or  other  suitable  shape,  by 
means  of  some  binding  material ,  it  can  not  be  thus  used  ; 
but  for  the  purpose  of  this  calculation  we  may  assume 
that  it  can. 

We  will  assume  that  the  limestone  to  be  employed  as 
flux  contains  3  per  cent,  of  silica,  that  the  coke  used  as 
fuel  contains  10  per  cent,  of  ash,  or  5  percent,  of  silica, 
and  that  the  ore  contains  55  per  cent,  of  iron  and  13  per 
cent,  of  silica.  What  will  it  cost  to  make  to  make  a  ton 
of  iron  with  these  ingredients,  allowing  2400  pounds  of 
ckke  per  ton  of  iron? 

1.82  tons  of  ore  at  $1.30 $2.36 

1.20  tons  of  coke  at  $1.75 2.10 

0 . 66  tons  of  stone  at  0 . 60 .  .  .  0 . 39 


$4.85 

This  cost  is,  of  course,  to  be  taken  as  representing  the 
cost  of  the  materials  entering  into  a  ton  of  iron,  and  does 
not  include  labor  costs,  repairs  and  interest,  and  is  based 
on  ordinary  fouadry-irons  with  slag  carrying  35  per  cent, 
of  silica. 

Aside,  however,  fron  considerations  affecting  the  cost 
of  making  iron,  with  or  without  these  concentrates,  in 


LOW    GRADE    ORES.  263 

the  Birmingham  district,  the  success  of  the  process  will 
bring  into  use  very  large  deposits  of  soft  ore  now  prac- 
tically worthless,  and  enable  the  owners  of  such  ore-lands 
to  realize  more  on  their  investment  than  they  could 
otherwise  hope  to  do.  The  supply  of  the  better  grades 
of  soft  ore  is  not  indefinitely  great,  and  even  where  the 
qual  \>y  of  the  seams  justifies  mining,  with  the  exceptio 
of  some  narrow  seams  of  high- grade  ore,  very  little  more 
than  half  the  seam  is  now  being  taken.  It  follows  that 
the  original  cost  of  the  ore-lands  must  be  doubled  if  the 
lower  part  of  the  ore  is  not  used,  and  in  charging  off  the 
cost  of  the  land  this  fact  must  be  considered .  If  this  process- 
w^ill  enable  us  to  utilize  the  whole  seam,  t  jp,  middle  and 
bottom,  all  al-  ng  rhe  Red  Mountain,  the  supply  of 
soft  ore  is  very  greatly  increased  and  the  cost  of  making 
iron  will  continue  lower  than  it  we  had  to  mine  ore  un- 
der ground. 

To  this  paper  may  be  added  the  following  observa- 
tions. The  difficulty  of  effecting  a  uniform  and  regular 
magnetization  in  the  Davis-Colby  kiln,  was  to  a  great 
extent  obviated  hy  reconstructing  the  kiln ,  so  as  to  provide 
4  chambers  each  with  its  own  in-rake  pipe  from  the  pro- 
ducer and  its  own  draft-pipe  into  the  main  connecting 
with  the  central  stack  b'lilt  alongside  the  kiln.  Each  of 
these  compartments  hold  about  22  tons  of.  raw  ore.  The 
advantage  of  thus  dividing  the  kiln  was  at  once  ap- 
parent. Each  compartment  was  a  separate  kiln,  inde- 
pendent of  all  the  others,  and  such  reducing  action  as 
was  desired  could  be  carried  on  at  will.  If  any  com- 
partment became  too  hot  the  amount  of  gas  going  into 
it  was  decreased  by  closing  the  valve,  if  not  hot  enough 
additional  gas  was  let  in.  Each  compartment  being 
provided  with  its  own  discharging  door  it  could  be  em- 
plied  without  interfering  with  the  others.  There  is  no 
better  kiln  for  calcining  ore  than  the  Davis-Colby,  but 


264  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

when  it  came  to  magnetizing  ore  it  was  found  necessary 
to  reconstruct  it. 

In  regard  to  the  magnetization  of  the  fossil  ores.  It 
bas  occurred  10  more  than  one  person  to  endeavour  to 
take  advantage  of  the  fact  that  they  (in  common  with 
non-magnetic  iron  ores  generally)  become  magnetic 
when  exposed,  at  a  sufficient  temperature  to  the  action 
of  reducing  gases.  But  so  far  as  the  writer  is  aware 
these  were  the  first  experiments  on  a  large  scale  to  im- 
prove the  quality  of  the  low  grade  ores  of  the  Clinton 
formation,  the  so-called  red  fossil  ores. 

Iti  March  1897  I  receive  1  a  very  interesting  conm  mi- 
cation  fro  n  Mr.  Jio.  T.  Hinlect,  Wythivilli,  Vi.,  de- 
tailing s)  n3  ex  :>9rim.3fifcs  ii }  mil)  10  y^a^s  a^o  with  the 
fossil  ores  of  that  part  of  Virginia,  the  S.  W.  portion. 
Mr.  Hamlett  wrote  : 

"About  10  years  ago  I  examined  these  ores  and  con- 
cluded I  would  make  an  experiment  with  them,  simply 
for  my  amusement.  I  t^ok  several  pieces  as  large  as  my 
fist,  and  put  them,  on  an  ordinary  wood  fire  and  left  them 
th  *re  to  roast  all  night.  Next  morning  I  pounded  them 
up  in  an  iron  mortar  to  the  size  of  ordinary  blasting 
p  »w  ler.  I  t'l^n  took  a  small,  cheap  pocket  m  ignet 
of  the  usual  horse-shoe  typij,  and  was  some  what  sur- 
prised at  the  ready  way  in  which  I  could  pick  out  the 
ore  and  leave  rhe  grains  of  silica.  My  little  magnet 
would  draw  up  every  particle  of  the  ore. 

I  then  sent  about  100  Ibs.  of  the,  ore  to  Mr.  Clemens 
Jones,  of  Pen na,  informing  him  of  ray  experiment.  I 
was  aware  of  the  f act  that  his  attention  had  been  turn- 
ed to  this  subject  of  concentrating  fossil  ores  by  roast- 
ing them  and  u-ing  elect?  icity  as  an  agent  in  his  work. 

In  due  course  or'  time  I  received  a  letter  from  him 
stacing  that  he  had  male  a  very  successful  and  en>our- 


LOW  GRDE  ORES.  205 

aging  test  with  the  ores   sent,  him    that  they    averaged 
24.30   per   cent,    of   iron     as     received,     but     that    lie 
had  no  difficulty  whatever  in  concentrating   them  up  to 
48  per  cent  without  crushing  them  too  fine,  etc.,  etc. 

There  the  matter  dropped,  so  far  as  I  was  concerned, 
and  there  it  has  remained  until  this  hour  so  far  as  these 
ores  are  concerned. 

Mr.  Clemens  Jones  piper  on  the  Magnetization  of 
Iron  ore"  was  read  at  the  New  York  meeting  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  September, 
1890,  but  there  is  no  mention  in  it  of  the  Virginia  ore, 
and  he  seems  to  have  confined  his  experiments  almost 
entirely  to  limonite  (brown  ore) . 

So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware  Mr.  Hamlett  was  the 
first  to  experiment  even  in  a  small  way  with  the  mag- 
netization and  concentration  of  the  red  fossil  ores,  and 
this  fact  would  certainly  have  been  mentioned  in  the 
Atlanta  article  had  he  known  of  it. 

It  was  stated  in  that  article  that  we  used  the  Hoff- 
man separator.  We  did  so  at  first  but  afterwards  used 
the  Payne  Separator,  and  obtained  from  it  excellent  re- 
sults, making  about  100  tons  of  concentrates.  It  was 
in  every  way  superior  to  the  Hoffman  machine,  and  is 
certainly  well  adopted  for  concentrating  magnetic  ore. 
Taking  every  thing  into  consideration  it  was  thought 
that  the  experiments  conducted  on  so  large  a  scale 
pr.nnisfd  to  develop  into  a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  Birm- 
ingham iron  industry.  But  hearing  of  the  Wetherill 
process  it  was  decided  to  try  this  also,  as  it  held  out 
hopes  of  our  being  able  to  dispense  with  the  magnetiz- 
ing of  the  ore,  and  this  would  be  a  great  desideratum. 

CONCENTRATION  BY  THE  WETHERILL  PROCESS. 

J3o  the  concentrating  plant  was  remodelled, and  two  furl 


266  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY   OF  ALABAMA. 

size  Wetherill  machines  were  put  in.  It  is  not  our  pur- 
pose to  describe  the  Wetherill  process.  Briefly,  it  is 
based  on  the  fact  that  when  iron,  bearing  minerals, 
properly  prepared  as  to  size,  etc.,  are  brought  into  a 
saturated  magnetic  field  they  are  attracted  in  propro- 
tion  to  the  strength  of  the  current,  and  the  amount  of 
iron  in  the  material.  Non-magnetic  ore  is  attracted 
just  as  if  it  were  magnetic,  and  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses these  machines,  whose  magnets  are  actuated  by 
a  current  of  electricity,  act  on  red  fossil  ore  as  if  it  were 
magnetic.  A  report  was  made  to  the  Wetherill  Con- 
centrating Company  on  the  resu.ts  of  various  trials 
lasting  over  several  weeks,  and  formed  a  part  of  a  pa- 
per read  before  the  Pittsburg  meeting  of  the  American 
Institute  Mining  Engineers,  February,  1896,  on  ''the 
magnetic  Separation  of  Non-Magnetic  material"  by 
Messrs  H.  A.  J.  Wilkens  and  H.  B.  C.  Nitze.  Mr.  Wil- 
kens  was  present  when  the  experiments  were  being 
conducted,  representing  the  Wetherill  Company  as  its 
general  manager,  and  with  the  writer  had  charge  of  the 
work. 

Messrs  Wilkens  and  Nitze  prepared  a  most  exce]]ent 
piper  on  the  Wetherill  process  generally  and  from  it  is 
taken  the  following  description  of  what  was  accomplish- 
ed in  concentrafing  the  fossil  ores  of  the  Birmingham: 
district. 

"Clinton  Fossil  Ores — Of  more  general  interest  on 
account  of  the  greater  application  of  the  process  and 
the  large  extent  of  the  field,  are,  perhaps,  the  results 
obtained  on  the  red  fossil  hematite  ores  of  the  Birming- 
ham district  in  Alab  ama. 

The  richer,  soft  ores   of  this  district,  such  as  are  used 

in  the  furnaces  ,  average  from  45   to  48  per  cent,  in  iron, 

and  from  30  to  24  per  cent,  in  insoluble    matter.      Such 

res  occur,  however,  only  in  a  few   localities,  which  are 


LOW    GRADE    ORER.  267 

limited  in  extent,  and  are  now  almost  exhausted.  By 
far  the  greater  portion  of  the  leached  ore-beds  consists 
of  material  running  from  35  to  45  per  cent,  in  iron  and 
from  45  to  30  per  cent,  in  insoluble  matter.  This  latter 
class  of  ore  cannot  be  used  in  the  furnaces  to  advantage, 
and  is  therefore  practically  worthless,  unless  the  per- 
centage of  iron  be  raised  by  concentration  ;  and  at  the 
same  time  the  insoluble  matter  be  proportionately  de- 
creased. 

Structurally,  the  ores  as  a  rule  fine-grained,  the  aver- 
age size  of  the  distinct  particles  being  such  as  would 
pass  through  a  10  mesh  screen. 

On  examining  the  product  of  separation  it  is  seen 
that  the  ore  consists  of : 

1.  Rounded  silica  grains,  which,  owing  to  a   coating 
of  iron  oxide,  are  found  by  analysss  to    contain  from  10 
to  15  per  cent,  of  iron. 

2.  Rounded  grains  of   more  highly    ferruginous  Fma- 
terial;  Tunning,  perhaps,  30  per  cent  in  iron. 

3.  A  binding  material  of  hematite,    which   in    itself 
carries  a  varying    amount  of  insoluble  matter,     depend- 
ing upon  the  locality  of  the  ore,  fineness    of   grain,    etc. 
Various  working  tests   were  made    on   material    from    a 
great  number  of  localities,  and    the  results  were  verified 
by  some  500  analysis. 

Space  will  not  permit  of  a  detailed  account  and  dis~ 
cussion  of  the  results  ;  it  is  merely  intended  here  to  pre- 
sent a  general  idea  of  what  was  accomplished. 

The  previous  magnetization  experiments  had  been 
made  entirely  on  the  richer  soft  ores,  such  as  are  now 
being  used  directly  in  the  furnace,  and  of  the  composi- 
tion given  above.  Concentration  tests  on  this  material  by 
the  Wetherill  process  gave  the  following  results  (Calcu- 
lated on  a  basis  of  100  tons  of  raw  ore)  : 


268  GEOLOGICAL    SURYEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Iron.  Insoluble. 

Original  ore  gave 48.03  .  25.20 

57  tons  of  heads  with 57.10  13.10 

28.  "      "  middling  with 46.20  25.40 

15.  "      "  tails  with 10.00  70.80 

It  was  further  found  that  about  20  per  cent  in  weight 
of  this  ore  could  be  brought  up  to  : 

Iron 59 .15  % 

Insoluble 10.45 

The  above  results  compare  most  favorably  with  those 
previously  obtained  by  the  magnitizing  roasting  process, 
particularly  in  the  proportional  amount  of  heads  that 
were  produced  and  the  comparatively  small  percentage 
of  iron  carried  in  the  tails.  For  the  purpose  of  compari- 
son, the  following  results  of  the  process  are  given,  (cal- 
culated on  a  basis  of  100  tons  of  raw  ore)  : 

Iron.  Insoluble. 

Original  magnetized  ore  gave 49.05  22.05 

15  tons  of  heads  with 59 .00  1 1 .06 

35       "       middlings  with 52.00  20.00 

50       "       tails               '•     44.00  28.00 

Only  the  more  perfectly  magnetized  material  was  used 
on  the  concentrating  machines. 

In  the  magnetizing  process  is  to  be  considered  not  only 
the  cost  of  roasting,  but  also  the  imperfections  attending 
it,  such  as  the  incomplete  magnetization,  the  louping  of 
the  ore-lumps,  and  the  inability  to  use  a  large  percent- 
age of  fines  in  the  kiln. 

There  is  no  doubt,  moreover,  that  the  raw  material  is 
better  ^adapted  for  concentration,  on  account  of  the  uni- 
formity in  the  magnetic  properties  and  physical  struc- 
ture of  the  several  ingredients. 

The  tests  by  direct  concentration  on  the  lower-grade 


LOW  GRADE  ORES.  269 

ores  showed  a  proportionately  greater  increase  in  the 
percentage  of  iron  than  those  on  the  higher-grade  mate- 
rial. The  quality  of  the  heads  was,  however,  not  as 
good,  which  shows  that  the  hematite  matrix  in  the  low- 
grade  ores  shows  a  larger  percentage  of  inherent  insolu- 
ble matter  than  that  of  the  richer  ores. 

Among  others  the  following  results  were  obtained  : 
(Calculated  on  the  basis  of  100  tons  of  raw  ore) . 

Iron.  Insoluble. 

Original  ore  gave 41  .H8         37.51 

69  tons  of  heads  with 52.00         23.00 

31        "       tails      "     18.40         70.00 

About  25  %  in  weight  of  this  original  ore  was  raised 
to:  iron,  56.40  %  ;  insoluble,  17  %. 

Tests  were  also  made  on  the  so-called  "  hard  ore,'* 
which  represents  that  portion  of  the  ore-bed  from  which 
the  lime  has  not  been  leached.  The  raw  ore  of  this 
character,  as  ussd  at  ihe  furnaces,  averages  :  iron,  35.50  ; 
insoluble,  17.50;  lime,  16  %. 

From  this  were  obtained  from  50  to  60  %  in  weight 
of  heads,  containing  :  iron,  48  ;  insoluble,  10.50  ;  lime, 

10  %r 

In  preparing  this  paper  Messrs.  Wilkins  &  Nitze  had 
in  view  an  account  of  the  Wetherill  process  as  applied 
to  various  ores,  not  only  of  iron,  but  of  zinc,  and  man- 
ganese, and  to  monazite  sands,  etc.  It  was  not  the  pur- 
pose to  speak  particularly  of  the  results  reached  in  the 
Birmingham  district  on  the  low-grade  Clinton  ores. 
Their  paper,  therefore,  while  fully  indicating  the  lines 
along  which  work  was  carried  on  here  could  not  deal  in 
detail  with  every  feature  of  it.  As  the  writer  is  con- 
vinced that  some  such  method  of  concentration  will 
eventually  be  used  here  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to 


270  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

give  other  results  reached  in  experimenting,  on  a  com- 
mercial scale,  with  the  Wetherill  process. 

The  question  was  discussed  by-  the  writer  in  the  En- 
gineering and  Mining  Journal,  New  York,  Vol.  LXII, 
pp.  75,  105,  124,  151,  and  the  description  given  here  is 
taken  partly  from  that  publication,  and  in  addition 
from  his  own  note-books. 

The  Wetherill  Inclined  Magnet  Machine,  and  the 
Flat  Magnet  Machine  were  used,  sometimes  one  and 
sometimes  the  other.  The  soft  red  ore  was  passed 
through  a  15-mesh  screen,  and  fed  to  the  machine  run- 
ning at  8  amperes  arid  100  volts. 

Iron.  Insoluble. 

100  tons  original  ore  gave ,  .  .39.20         40.16 

52.4  tons  heads  with 56.40         17.10 

6.9     "     middlings  with 38.85         41.35 

40.7    "     tails  with 16.70         74.10 

The  gain  of  the  heads  in  iron  was  43.8  %  over  the 
original  ore,  and  the  redaction  of  the  insoluble  siliceous 
matter  was  57.4  %  ;  number  of  tons  of  raw  ore  for  1  ton 
of  56.40  %  concentrates,  1.91.  That  is  to  say,  from 
1.91  tons  of  raw  ore  carrying  39.20  %  of  iron  there  was 
obtained  1  ton  of  ore  with  56.40  %  of  iron.  This  result 
given  here  were  not  obtained  at  a  single  operation,  and 
the  course  of  treatment  was  as  follows  : 

1st  pass,  amperes,  10  ;  volts,  100. 

Iron.  Insoluble. 

100      tons  original  ore  gave 39.20  40.16 

59.3      "     heads  and  middlings  with..  54. 10  18.80 

40.7      "    tails                                   "       16.70  74.10 

The  heads  and  middlings  from  the  1st  pass  were  re- 
passed  at  8  amperes  and  100  volts,  and  we  obtained^  wo 


LOW  GRADE  ORES.  271 

products,  viz.  :  middlings,  4  %  of  the  original  ore,  with 
31.40  %  of  iron,  and  52.20  %  of  insoluble  matter;  and 
heads  and  middlings,  55%  of  the  original  ore,  with  54.10 
per  cent,  iron,  and  18.70  per  cent,  insoluble  matter. 
Finally  these  second  heads  and  middlings  were  repassed 
at  r>  amperes,  100  volts,  and  two  products  obtained, 
vi;;  :  middlings,  2.9  per  cent,  of  the  original  ore,  with 
46.30  percent,  of  iron,  and  30.50  per  cent,  of  insoluble, 
and  heads  (final  heads)  52.4  per  cent,  of  the  original 
ore,  with  56.40  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  17.10  per  cent,  of 
insoluble.  We  could  have  stopped  with  the  first  heads 
and  middlings,  and  have  had  59  3  per  cent,  by  weight  of 
the  original  ore,  with  f  4.10  per  cent,  iron,  and  18.80 
percent,  of  insoluble  matter.  We  may  say,  then,  that 
from  an  ore  carrying  3c).20  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  40.16 
per  cent,  of  siliceous  m  itter  we  obtained  at  the  first 
pass  59  per  cent,  by  weight  of  concentrates  with  54.10 
per  cent,  iron,  and  18.80  per  cent  of  siliceous  matter. 
The  gain  in  the  percentage  of  iron  was  38  per  cent,  above 
the  original  ore,  the*  reduction  of  the  siliceous  matter 
was  53  per  cent.,  and  for  one  ton  of  concentrates  there 
was  required  1.69  tons  of  raw  ore. 

One  hundred  tons  of  this  raw  ore  would  yield  59  tons 
of  concentrates  with  54  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  41  tons  of 
tails  with  16.70  percent,  of  iron. 

In  our  operations  \the  amount  of  raw  ore  passing  a 
40-mesh  screen  was  33  per  cent,  of  the  ore,  and  this  con- 
tained 49.4  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  28.5  per  cent,  of 
siliceous  matter.  The  fines  from  this  low-grade  ore  are 
much  richer  in  iron  than  the  coarse  stuff.  They  carry 
from  49  per  cent.  to^54  per  cent,  of  iron  even  when  the 
original  ore  carries  only  37  per  cent,  of  iron. 

The  ferruginous  portion  of  the  ore  is  softer  than  the 
more  sandy  portions,  and  it  is  possible  to  effect  a  very 
considerable  concentration  merely  by  crushing  the  dry 


272       GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 

ore  and  screening  over  a  40-mesh  screen.  The  amount 
of  material  passing  through  a  screen  of  this  fineness 
varies  from  25  per  cent,  to  35  per  cent.,  so  that  we 
might  expect  to  get  to  54  per  cent,  of  iron  in  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  of  the  raw  ore  simply  by  crush- 
ing and  screening.  There  is  an  increase  of  iron  in  the 
material  finer  than  40-mesh,  but  hardly  enough  to  merit 
attention. 

The  material  through  a  40-mesh  screen  was,  therefore, 
called  fines,  and  can  be  concentrated  somewhat.  In 
working  on  the  fines  we  used  the  inclined-magnet  ma- 
chine, and  obtained  results  as  follows  : 

Iron.  Insoluble. 

Fines  through  40-mesh 49.40  26.50 

10  amperes,  100  volts,  gave 

12.6  per  cent,  of  heads  with 55.30  17.12 

22.8  per  cent,  of  middlings  with.  .  .  .51.75  21.10 

64.6  per  cent,  of  tails  with 45.80  30.35 

The  gain  of  the  heads  in  iron  was  11.9  per  cent.,  and 
the  loss  of  insoluble  matter  was  35.4  per  cent. 

Numerous  experiments  with  this  and  similar  material 
satisfied  us  that  it  would  not  be  profitable  to  attempt  its 
concentration.  It  should  be  briquetted  at  once  without 
further  treatment,  or  mixed  with  'heads'  and  briquetted. 

Material  through  an  8-mesh  and  over  a  15-rnesh  screen 
was  tried  on  the  inclined-magnet  machine,  with  the  fol- 
lowing results  : 

Iron.  Insoluble. 
Raw   ore  through  8  over  15  mesh, 

24  percent 35.40  46.34 

6  amperes,  100  volts,  heads,  45.5  per 

cent. 50.20  24.34 

Middlings  19.0  per  cent. 43.00  34.95 

Tails  55.5  per  cent 15.40  75.35 


LOW    GRADE    ORES. 


273 


By  repassing  the  middlings,  the  yield  of 'heads'  could 
be  increased  perhaps  to  50  per  cent.,  so  that  there  would 
be  50  per  cent,  of  heads,  instead  of  35.40  per  cent.  But 
it  would  not  be  advisable  to  use  ore  of  this  degree  of 
ooarseness,  as  the  mechanical  separation  of  the  ore  into 
ferruginous  portion  plus  matrix  is  more  perfect  in  ma- 
terial through  a  15  or  20-mesh  screen  than  in  coarser 
stuff.  Crushing  the  ore  merely  separates  it  into  two  por- 
tions, the  one  carrying  iron,  the  other  carrying  silica, 
and  the  object  of  the  separation  is  to  divide  the  one  from 
the  other. 

The  following  results  from  concentrating  low  grade 
soft  red  ore 'by  the  Wetherill  process  are  taken  from  the 
writer's  note-books. 

Iron.  Insoluble. 

Original  ore 34.90  47.12 

Gave. 

52  per  cent,  of  heads  with 49.20  25.84 

20  per  cent,  of  middlings  with 39.20  41.00 

28  per  cent,  of  tails  with 14.00  78.14 

Original  ore 36.80  45.56 

46  per  cent,  of  heads  with 52.90  21.24 

15  per  cent,  of  middlings  with 37.45  43.62 

39  per  cent,  of  tails  with 17.20  74.68 

Iron.  Insoluble. 

Original  ore 39.20  40.16 

Gave. 

51.6  per  cent,  of  heads  with 52.50  22.60 

11.4  per  cent,  of  middlings  with 32.05  51.89 

37.0  per  cent,  of  tails  with. 16.10  74.76 

Another  trial  of  this  ore  under  somewhat  different  con- 
ditions resulted  as  follows : 
18 


274 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


Iron.  Insoluble. 

Original  ore 39.20  40.16 

Gave. 

66.4  per  cent,  of  heads  with 53.80  19.02 

43.6  per  cent,  of  tails  with. 24.70  62.20 

And  a  third  trial,  varying  the  treatment : 

Iron.  Insoluble. 

Original  ore 39.20  40.16 

Gave . 

52.4  per  cent,  of  heads  with 55.40  17.10 

6.9  percent,  of  middlings  with 38.85  41.35 

40.7  percent,  of  tails  with 16.70  74.10 

These  last  results  having  been  already  quoted. 

Iron.  Insoluble, 

Original  ore 34.82  47.60 

Gave. 

42  per  cent,  of  heads  with 55.60  17.00 

18  per  cent,  of  middlings  with 37.95  43.17 

40  per  cent  of  tails  with 13.50  79.88 

Iron.  Insoluble, 

Original  ore 42.00  36.42 

Gave. 

59  per  cent,  of  heads  with 51.00  25.20 

23.7  per  cent,  of  middlings  with.'.  .  .45.70  31.76 

17.3  per  cent,  of  tails  with 12.90  79.80 

Original  ore 37.30  42.90 

Gave. 

47  per  cent,  of  heads  with 53.25  19.05 

24  per  cent,  middlings  with 30.26  51.94 

29  per  cent,  tails  with 13.70  78.70 

Original  ore 37.36  42.73 

Gave. 

46  per  cent,  of  heads  with.  .  . 50.50  22.12 

15  per  cent,  of  middlings  with 36.80  42.73 


LOW  GRADE  ORES.  275 

39  per  cent,  of  tails  with 15.80  74.20 

A  great  many  more  analysis  could  be  given,  all  bearing 
on  this  question,  as  the  writer  has  devoted  much  time  to 
the  study  of  the  matter.     But  these  will  suffice   to  show 
what  was  done,  and  to  indicate   the   lines  along   which 
future  investigations  will  doubtless   be  conducted.     So 
far  as  concerns  the  low  grade  soft  red  ore  of   the    Birm- 
ingham district  ic   may  be   said  that  it   far  exceeds   in 
quantity  the  richer  ores,  and  it  can  be  mined  more  chap- 
ly    than     these.      The    vast    deposit  of  low-grade   ore 
carrying  from  33  per  cent,  to  40  per  cent,  of  iron  can  be 
utilized.     Now  they  are   practically  worthies,    and   the 
exhaustion  of  the  richer  ores  is  proceeding  very  rapidly. 
There  will  come  a  time,  and  that  soon,  when  the  soft  red 
ore  as  now  used  will  become  so   scarce   as  to   forco  the 
iron  companies  to  discontinue  its  use,  or  pay  more  for  it. 
The  careful  experiments  that  were   made   demonstrated 
beyond  any  question  that  an  ore  of  35  per  cent,   of  iron 
could  be  concentrated  to  52  per  cent.,  and  that  2  tons  of 
raw  ore  would  yield  1   ton  of  such   concentrates.     This 
means  that  ore  now  worthless  can  be  made  into  concen- 
trates richer  than  any  soft  red  ore  now  used  in  the  Birm- 
ingham district,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Iron- 
dale  seam.     There  is  not  in  the  entire  State  a  more  in- 
viting field  for  cultivation  by  the  far-seeing  iron-master. 
The    enormous   expense   incurred  by  Mr.  Edison  in 
concentrating  the   low-grade  magnetites  of  Sussex  Co. 
New   Jersey,   would  not  be  required  here.     It  is  true 
that   he  takes    an    ore    of   about    17   per   cent,  of   iron 
and  concentrates  it  to  about  63  per  cent.,  and  it  is  also 
true  that  his  concentrates  are  Bessemer  ore,  and  worth 
four  or  five   times   as  much   as   the   Alabama   product 
would  be.     But  the   market   for   the   Alabama   concen- 
trates would  be  at  the  very  door  of  the  works,  and  the 


276  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF   ALABAMA. 

cost  of  production  would  be  far  below  the  cost  in  New" 
Jersey. 

In  urging  this  matter  upon  the  attention  of  the  pro- 
gressive iron  makers  in  Alabama,  it  is  hoped  that  steps 
will  be  taken  to  put  to  profitable  use  what  is  now  use- 
less, and  yet  is  capable  of  being  made  of  the  highest 
use.  We  can  never  avail  ourselves  of  the  resources  that 
nature  has  so  bountifully  supplied  unless  we  overcome 
the  obstacles  that  nature  herself  has  placed  in  our  path. 
The  utilization  of  ,the  low-grade  soft  ores  if  not  now  a 
necessity  of  the  situation  will  speedily  become  so,  for 
the  other  ore  is  disappearing  ;  there  is  not  enough  cheap 
brown  ore  to  take  its  place,  and  to  replace  it  with  limy 
ore  means  an  increase  of  the  cost  account. 

But  tLe  low-grade  soft  red  ores  are  not  the  only  ores- 
that  lend  themselves  readily  to  concentration.  There- 
are  very  large  deposits  of  'hard'  red  ore  (limy  ore)  that 
can  not  be  used  because  of  the  low  percentage  of  iron 
and  the  high  percentage  of  siliceous  matter. 

In  view  of  the  results  obtained  with  the  Wetherill. 
process  one  is  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  concentra- 
tion based  on  previous  artificial  magnetization  cannot 
be  recommended.  It  is  true  that  the  final  heads  from 
magnetized  ore  carry  more  iron  than  the  final  heads 
from  the  Wetherill  process,  but  on  the  average  this  dif- 
ference is  not  above  5  or  6  per  cent,  and  can  Dot  coun- 
terbalance the  difference  in  the  cost  of  the  two  schemes. 

Furthermore,  the  waste  of  iron  in  the  tails  from  mag- 
netized ore  is  very  much  greater  than  from  the  Wetherill 
machines.  Unless  all  of  the  ore  is  thoroughly  mag- 
netized this  loss  will  be  constant,  and  unavoidable. 
The  cost  of  thorough  and  uniform  magnetization  would 
be  very  great,  even  if  possible  at  all.  The  writer  may 
l>e  pardoned  for  having  taken  an  encouraging  view  of 
concentration  based  on  magnetization  in  1895,  because 


LOW  GRADE  ORES.  277 

it  seemed  then  to  be  the  only  solution  of  the  problem. 
To  concentrate  three  tons  of  ore  into  one  would  have 
paid  then  as'it  will  pay  now.  It  is  probable,  from  addi- 
tional study  of  the  subject,  that  in  the  magnetization 
process  there  would  have  been  required  three  tons  of 
raw  ore  forgone  ton  of  concentrates  carrying  55  per  cent, 
of  iron,  but  by  using  the  Wetherill  process  two  tons  of 
raw  ore  will  make  one  ton  of  53  per  cent,  concentrates. 
To  mine  and  treat  one  ton  of  ore  for  two  per  cent,  of 
iron  does  not  present  many  attractive  features. 

The  Wetherill  process  is  carried  on  at  so  much  less 
expense  throughout  that  if  it  gives  approximately  the 
same  results,  this  feature  alone  would  commend  it.  The 
sole  advantage  that  the  magnetizing  process  possesses 
over  the  other  is  in  the  higher  percentage  of  iron  in  the 
final  heads,  and  this  advantage  disappears  entirely  when 
we  consider  the  cost  at  which  it  is  gained. 

These  two  processes  have  been  described  because  they 
are  the  only  processes  that  seem  to  merit  attention,  and 
of  these  the  magnetizing  process  must  now  be  excluded. 
If  it  is  asked  why  either  one  is  to  be  considered  we  re- 
ply because  the  supply  of  cheap  soft  red  ore  carrying 
from  4'5  to  48  per  cent,  of  iron  is  being  rapidly  depleted, 
and  in  a  few  years  will  be  practically  exhausted.  This 
may  not  be  a  welcome  truth  to  some,  and  others  will 
deny  it,  but  it  remains,  in  spite  of  surprise  and  denial. 
So  far  as  concerns  the  soft  red  ore  the  time  is  not  dis- 
tant when  a  much  higher  price  will  be  paid  for  it  than 
now  maintains.  The  great  bulk  of  the  ore  on  the  Red 
Mountain,  near  Birmingham,  which  uninitiated  visit- 
ors regard  with  wondering  eye,  is  too  poor  in  iron  to  be 
used  in  the  furnaces.  If  used  at  all  it  will  have  to  be 
improved  by  concentration,  or  the  furnace  practice  will 
•foe  confined  to  hard  (limy)  ore  and  brown  ore. 

We  may  keep  the  great  out-crops  of  ore  for  a  sort  of 


278         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

show-place,  as  they  are  to  some  extent  now,  and  con- 
tinue to  publish  photographs  showing  15,  20,  and  25 
feet  of  ore  as  evidence  of  the  prodigality  of  nature, 
But  there  is  not  a  single  place  on  Red  Mountain,  from 
Irondale  to  Raymond,  where  even  12  feet  of  ore  is 
mined,  and  the  huge  seams  taken  as  a  whole  are  worth- 
less. It  is  all  very  well  to  take  visitors  to  some  great 
cut  in  the  seam,  and  ask  them  what  they  think  of  that 
for  ore.  What  they  will  think  depends  entirely  upon 
how  much  they  know  about  the  ore.  If  they  do  not 
know  much  their  astonishment  will  be  all  that  the  most 
accomplished  'boomer'  could  wish,  but  if  they  know  the 
ore  they  will  be  apt  to  ask  how  it  is  proposed  to  utilize 
such  low-grade  stuff. 

This  low-grade  material,  which  exists  in  very  large 
masses,  can  be  utilized  by  concentration,  but  until  this 
is  done  it  is  commercially  of  no  importance. 

Concentration  of  the  'Hard'  (Limy)  Red  Ore. 

The  following  experiments  were  made  with  the  Weth- 
erill  process  on  the  ordinary  'hard'  (limy)  ores  of  the 
Birmingham  District. 

Concentration  of  Hard  (Limy)  Ore. 

Two  experiments  on  the  ordinary  limy  ore  are  first 

given . 

Iron.     Lime.        Insoluble. 

Original  ore 37.60  15.00  16.20 

gave 

55  per  cent,  heads  with 48.70  9.76  10.26 

15  per  cent,  middlings  with  29.00  21.40  18.20 

30  per  cent,  tails                "     18.20  25.12  27.00 

With  an  ore  not  so  good  but  still  passable  : 

Original  ore  34.50     17.10  18.04 

gave 


LOW  GRADE  ORES.  279 

64  per  cent,  of   heads  with  45.40     11.45  12.25 

7     "       "         middlings  "     25.80     24.02  17.95 

29     "       "         tails  •"     13.55     27.10  30.34 

To  bring  the  iron  up  from  37.6  per  cent,  to  48.70  per. 
cent.,  and  at  the  same  time  preserve  the  self-fluxing  na- 
ture of  the  ore  is   very   encouraging.     The    second    re- 
sults are  still  better. 

The  low-grade  limy  ore  was  then  tried  with  the  follow- 
ing results  : 

Iron.  Lime.  Insoluble. 

Original  ore.. 31.80  10.79       33.10 

Gave. 

44  per  cent,  of  heads  with. .  .43.15  8.80       19.66 

6            "        middlings  with. 29 .45  12.40  32.90 

50            "         tails               "    .22.80  12.52  43.82 

Original  ore 32.80  9.90  33.70 

Gave. 

58  per  cent,  of  heads  with. .  .  .44.50  9.00  17.30 

10           "          middlings  with. 35. 90  13.20  23.28 

32           "          tails               "    .21.60  8.80  42.70 

Other  experiments  on  similar  limy  ore  showed  similar 
results.  In  its  original  condition  this  low-grade  limy 
ore  is  not  self-fluxing,  i.  e.,  it  does  not  carry  enough 
lime  to  flux  the  siliceous  matter,  and  by  concentration 
it  does  not  become  so.  But  it  is  greatly  improved.  In 
the  one  case  the  ratio  in  the  raw  ore  between  the  lime 
and  the  siliceous  matter  is  1 :  3,  but  in  the  heads  it  was 
reduced  to  1 :  2.2.  In  the  other  case  the  ratio  fell  from 
1 :  3. 4  in  the  original  ore  to  1  :  1.9  in  the  heads.  The 
original  ore  is  worthless,  the.  concentrates,  while  not 
self-fluxing,  are  still  very  good  semi-hard  ore.  The  re- 
lation of  the  low-grade  *  hard  '  ore  to  the  *  hard  '  ore 
mined  is  approximately  the  same  as  that  of  the  low- 


280          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

grade  soft  ore  to  the  soft  ore  mined.  Take  for  instance, 
the  big  seam  on  Red  Mountain.  In  places  it  is  22 -feet 
thick,  but  will  average  about  20  feet.  Where  the  lime 
has  been  leached  out  the  whole  of  the  seam  is  soft  ore, 
but  only  the  upper  10  feet  is  mined,  the  lower  10  feet 
being  too  low  in  iron  and  too  high  in  silica  to  allow  of 
its  profitable  use  in-  the  furnace.  As  the  seam  goes 
under  cover  the  lime  increases  and  the  ore  becomes 
'  hard, '  or  limy,  and  when  the  lime  and  the  silica  are  in 
equal  proportions  the  ore  is  said  to  be  self-fluxing,  as 
has  been  fully  explained  in  the  chapter  on  ores.  The 
8  or  10  feet  of  the  '  hard  '  ore  next  to  the  roof  of  the 
seam  is  the  better  portion,  just  as  this  part  of  the 
leached,  or  soft  ore  is  the  best.  The  8  or  10  feet  of  the 
'  hard '  ore  next  to  the  floor  of  the  seam  is  too  low  in 
iron  and  lime,  and  too  high  in  silica  to  be  used.  It 
must  be  concentrated,  just  as  the  corresponding  part  of 
the  seam  towards  the  outcrop  must  be  concentrated. 

The  following  sketch  will   explain   the    relative    posi- 
tions of  the  usable  soft  and  hard  ores,  and  the  unusable. 


LOW  GRADE  ORES 


281 


282          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  of  ALABAMA. 

In  this  sketch  the  distance  along  the  dip  to  which  the 
1  soft,'  or  lime-free  ore  goes  is  taken  at  300  feet.  This 
is  not  always  the  case.  Sometimes  the  *  hard  '  or  lime- 
ore,  begins  much  nearer  the  crop,  and  at  places  the  soft 
ore  extends  further  than  300  feet.  But  no  matter 
whether  the  distance  is  more  or  less  than  300  feet  even- 
tually the  lime-ore  replaces  the  other  and  extends  from 
wall  to  wall.  The  sketch  shows  that  about  one-half  of 
the  soft  is  mined  and  used,  the  remainder  being  unfit 
for  use.  It  also  shows  that  about  one-half  of  the  '  hard  * 
ore  is  mined  and  used,  the  remainder  being  unfit  for  use, 
It  is  the  lower  half  in  each  case  that  must  be  concen- 
trated. 

It  is  not  proposed,  at  present,  to  attempt  the  concen- 
tration of  the  upper  half,  either  of  the  soft,  or  of  hard 
ore,  inasmuch  as  the  prices  at  which  they  are  delivered 
render  the  competition  even  of  better  ore  very  severe. 
But  taking  the  best  case  in  which  one-half  of  the  big 
seam  can  be  mined,  as  the  sketch  shows,  the  other  half 
is  practically  worihless  as  it  is.  This  is  the  big  seam 
at  its  best,  and  there  is  not  much  of  the  minable  portion 
of  it  left.  But  in  many  places,  as  between  Red  Gap  and 
Lone  Pine  Gap,  on  Rtd  Mountain,  near  Birmingham,, 
the  entire  thickness  is  of  low-grade,  none  of  it  is  fit 
to  use,  and  the  20  feet  would  be  available  for  concen- 
tration. 

Reasoning  from  analogy  we  can  expect  the  entire- 
seam  under  cover,  and  when  it  becomes  limy  to  be  also 
of  low-grade.  The  question  of  concentrating  the  low- 
grade  limy  ore,  is,  therefore,  of  no  small  moment.  Allow- 
ing for  the  sake  of  the  argument  that  the  furnace  prac- 
tice in  the  Birmingham  district  will  be  based  more  and 
more  on  the  use  of  limy  ore,  and  that  there  will  be  less 
and  less  '  soft '  ore  used,  where  is  the  limy  ore  to  come 
from?  The  estimates  as  to  the  amount  of  limy  ore 


LOW  GRADE  ORES.  283 

available  will  have  to  be  greatly  reduced,  and  when 
larger  and  larger  demands  are  made  upon  it,  as  will  cer- 
tainly be  the  case  if  the  use  of  sof  tjore  is  lessened  or  dis- 
continued entirely,  it  is  doubtful  if  they  can  be  met, 
except  at  an  increased  cost.  Regarded  from  any  stand- 
point, whether  that  of  soft  ore,  or  of  hard  ore,  concen- 
tration becomes  a  ver>  live  question,  and  one  to  which 
no  prudent  manager  can  refuse  to  give  earnest  heed. 

The  self-fluxing  limy  ores  of  the  Clinton  formation  are 
highly  esteemed,  and  justly  so,  for  while  not  rich  in 
iron  they  carry  the  lime  necessary  for  fluxing  their  own 
silica.  This  is  a  great  advantage,  and  any  plan  that 
promises  to  increase  the  available  supply  of  these  ores 
certainly  merits  the  most  careful  consideration. 
Another  suggestion  that  has  been  made  in  respect  of  im- 
proving the  quality  of  the  limy  ores  is  to  calcine  them 
and  send  the  hot  ore  to  the  furnace.  Taking  an  ordi- 
nary limy  ore,  i.  e.  With  iron  ,37 %,  silica  16%,  lime 
carbonate  28%,  if  the  carbonic  acid  were  entirely  re- 
moved the  analysis  would  show  iron  42%,  silica  18%, 
lime  17.9%.  One  hundred  tons  would  weigh  87.7  tons, 
and  in  respect  of  weight  to  be  handled  there  would  be  a 
positive  advantage.  Of  the  raw  ore  there  would  be  re- 
quired 2.7  tons  per  ton  of  iron,  of  the  calcined  ore  2.38 
tons,  a  saving  of  716  Ibs.,  of  ^ore  per  ton  of  iron.  In 
other  words,  a  150  ton  furnace  running  on  all  hard  ore 
requires  405  tons  and  would*require  357  tons  of  calcined 
ore.  It  it  was  charged  with  as  much  calcined  ore  as 
raw  ore  the  output  would  be  170  tons  instead  of  150 
tons,  a  gain  of  13  % . 

Some  experiments  were  tried  here,  but  were  not  con- 
ducted long  enough  to  warrant  one  in  giving  an  opin- 
ion as  to  the  results.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  removing 
the  carbonic  acid  in  a  gas-fired  Davis — Colby  kiln,  as  we 
found  that  the  ore  from  the  shutes  contained  only  a  few 


284          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

tenths  of  a  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid,  whereas  it  carried 
nerly  1 7  %  as  charged  into  the  kiln. 

The  ore  would,  of  course,  still  be  self-fluxing,  and  the 
question  would  be  whether  the  removal  of  the  carbonic 
acid  outside  of  the  furnace,  with  the  consequent  trans- 
formation of  the  carbonate  of.  lime  into  caustic  lime, 
would  benefit  the  ore  more  than  it  would  cost. 

Without  entering  upon  any  lengthy  discussion,  as  the 
matter  has  not  yet  passed  the  experimental  stage,  we 
may  regard  the  question  briefly,  from  a  physical  and  a 
chemical  standpoint. 

Physically  the  ore  would  become  more  porous  as  the 
expulsion  of  the  carbonic  acid  would,  to  a  great  extent, 
destroy  its  compactness.  It  would  lose  in  weight,  but 
this  would  be  more  than  counter- balanced  by  the  gain 
in  the  per  centage  of  iron.  Its  increased  porosity  would 
allow  easier  penetration  for  the  reducing  gases  of  the 
furnace.  Against  this  may  be  placed  its  increased  fria- 
bility, and  the  consequent  production  of  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  the  fine  material  in  the  furnace.  Chemically,  we 
should  have  to  consider  the  effect  upon  the  combustible 
gases  of  the  introduction  of  caustic  lime  instead  of  car- 
bonate of  lime. 

The  carbonic  acid  has  to  be  removed  and  the  question 
narrows  down  to  a  single  consideration,  viz  :  Is  there 
any  advantage  in  removing  it  outside  of  the  furnace? 
The  heat  within  the  furnace  removes  it  quite  as  effec- 
tively as  the  heat  of  a  kiln,  but  then  we  would  have  to 
weigh  the  effect  of  large  volumes  of  hot  carbonic  acid 
on  the  coke,  with  solution  of  carbon,  &c.  Cokes  differ 
markedly  in  this  respect,  and  each  one  has  to  be  exam- 
ined in  and  for  itself.  If  the  calcined  ore  is  charged 
direct  it  would  carry  a  considerable  amount  of  heat  into 
the  upper  part  of  the  furnace  and  it  would  be  more  diffi- 
cult to  maintain  a  cool  top.  This,  however,  need  hardly 


LOW  GRADE  ORES.  285 

be  considered,  as  the  additional  temperature,  due  to 
charging  hot  material,  would  be  derived,  not  from  reac- 
tions within  the  furnace,  but  from  extraneous  sources. 
A  cool  top  under  ordinary  conditions  means  that  the  heat 
within  the  furnace  is  used  in  melting  the  stock,  and  is  not 
escaping  in  the  gases.  But  if  a  hot  top  is  due  to  extrane- 
ous heat,  such,  for  instance,  as  hot  material  charged, 
there  would  be  no  injurious  effect  upon  the  zone  of  fusion . 
It  might  be  advantageous  to  have  a  hot  top  if  the  heat 
was  not  derived  from  the  reactions  within  the  furnace, 
as  the  gases  to  be  consumed  under  the  boilers  and  in  the 
stoves  would  arrive  at  the  burners  at. a  higher  tempera- 
ture. Aside  from  such  considerations,  however,  it  seems 
advisable  to  use  the  calcined  ore  direct.  Where  it  is 
stocked,  or  allowed  to  remain  even  for  twenty-four  hours 
in  the  air,  it  rapidly  takes  up  water  and  becomes  pasty. 
When  the  slacking  of  the  caustic  lime  is  completed  the 
material  appears  dry  but  in  reality  contains  not  only 
water  of  hydration  but  carbonic  acid  also.  When  the 
water  of  hydration  is  expelled  the  lime  becomes  pulver- 
ulent and  dusty,  blows  about  in  every  breeze  and  is 
troublesome  to  both  bottom  and  top  fillers.  It  can  be 
dampened  with  water  from  a  hose-pipe,  of  course,  but  in 
that  case  the  mass  becomes  pasty,  and  the  stockhouse 
uncomfortable.  If  the  ore  is  not  used  direct,  (the  kiln 
being  in  immediate  proximity  to  the  furnace),  the  ad- 
vantages to  be  obtained  from  calcining  begin  to  disappear 
at  once,  and  continue  to  become  less  and  less  the  longer 
the  interval  between  calcination  and  charging. 

CONCENTRATION    OF  BROWN  ORES. 

Some  experiments  on  concentrating  brown  ores  were 
made  with  the  Wetherill  process,  but  we  did  not  proceed 
far  enough  to  obtain  any  very  positive  results.  We 


286         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

found  that  an  ore  carrying,  on  dry  basis,  45%  of  iron, 
and  18%  of  silica  could  be  improved  so  that  about  55% 
of  it  carried  52%  of  iron.  In  the  paper  by  Messrs. 
Wilkens  and  Nitze,  already  quoted,  are  given  results 
from  the  trial  of  some  Virginia  brown  ores.  Thus  a 
brown  ore  from  Iron  Gate,  Alleghany  county,  gave  the 
following  results  : 

Iron.  Silica. 

Original  ore 43.08  31.29 

Gave 

Concentrates,  63.4%  with 51.04  11.24 

Tails  36. 6%   with 31.74  

Washer  tailings  from  Barren  Springs,  Va. 

Iron.  Silica. 

Original  ore 32.03  29.93 

Gave 

Concentrates,  30%   with.... 53.14  7.43 

Tails  70  %  with 22.98  39.58 

It  may  be  that  some  such  process  will  be  found  to  be 
applicable  to  low-grade  brown  ores,  especially  to  wash- 
er-tailings and  kiln  screenings,  but  for  the  ^most  part 
calcination  will  be  used  on  brown  ores  for  improving 
their  quality. 

There  are  doubtless  many  brown  ores  whose  initial 
content  of  iron  is  so  low  as  to  forbid  the  expense  of  cal- 
cining, and  some  magnetic  process  may  eventually  be 
applied  to  them.  But  for  brown  ores  that  carry  from 
40  to  45%  of  iron,  dry,  calcining  is  to  be  preferred. 

Calcining  is  not  commonly  practiced  in  Alabama. 
Some  of  the  charcoal  furnace  calcine  their  brown 
ore,  but  by  far  the  largest  users  of  the  brown 


LOW  GRADE  ORES.  287 

ore,  the  Woodstock  furnaces  at  Anniston,  and  the 
furnaces  at  Sheffield  and  Birmingham  do  not  use  cal- 
cined ore. 

When  calcining  is  practiced  one  of  two  methods  are 
used,  the  old  fashioned  open  air  pile  fired  with  charcoal 
breeze  ;  or  the  new  fashioned  gas-fired  kiln.  The  former 
method  needs  no  description.  When  properly  managed 
it  gives  fair  results,  but  can  not  be  depended  on  to  give 
uniformly  calcined  ore.  Even  with  careful  attention, 
which  it  seldom  gets,  a  part  of  the  ore  will  not  be  calcin- 
ed at  all.  a  part  will  be  proper]y  calcined,  and  a  part 
will  be  'louped'. 

Attention  is  being  drawn  more  and  more  to  calcining 
in  gas-fired  kilns,  and  of  the  various  kinds  the  Davis- 
Colby  is  preferred.  In  this  kiln  the  current  of  heated 
gas  and  flame  is  drawn  across  the  ore  as  it  descends  be- 
tween the  outer  walls  of  the  combustion  chamber  and  a 
central  space  connected  with  the  stack.  The  kiln  is  built 
of  any  convenient  size,  from  100  to  150  tons  capacity, 
&nd  is  fired  with  producer  gas. 

Allowing  7  per  cent,  of  hygrocopic  water,  removable 
at  212  deg.  F,  and  7  per  cent,  of  combined  water,  remov- 
able only  at  red  heat,  a  kiln  holding  125-140  tons  of  raw 
ore  will  deliver  from  107  to  120  tons  of  thoroughly  and 
uniformly  calcined  ore  per  24  hours,  with  a  consumption 
of  2i  to  3  tons  of  coal.  To  calcine  one  ton  of  raw  ore 
(2240  Ibs.)  requires  about  52 .  Ibs,  of  coal. 

The  advantages  of  the  gas-fired  kiln  are  economy  of 
labor,  and  uniformity  of  product.  These  advantages 
maintain  under  all  conditions,  except  where  the  price  of 
coal  is  prohibitory,  and  even  there  the  wood-fired  or 
charcoal-fired  producer  may  be  used. 

The  use  of  all  brown  ore  in  coke  furnaces  may  be  ren- 
dered necessary  by  contracts  specifying  that  the  iron 
shall  be  made  from  brown  ore,  or  by  proximity  to  de- 


288  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

posits  known  to  be  very  considerable.  A  determination 
on  the  part  of  furnace  owners  to  make  a  special  high 
grade  charcoal  iron  would  also  entail  the  exclusive  use 
of  brown  ore. 

A  kiln  to  treat  140  tons  of  raw  ore  per  day,  with  pro- 
ducer and  all  necessary  fittings,  will  cost  about  $7,000, 
and  will  yield  ordinarily  about  120  tons  of  calcined  ore. 
This  amount  would  contain  from  60  to  65  tons  of  iron, 
and  would  be  equivalent  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  ore  bur- 
den for  two  150  ton  furnaces. 

The  freight  on  a  ton  of  raw  ore  from  the  washer  to  the 
furnace  may  be  taken  at  25  cts.  in  the  Birmingham  dis- 
trict, and  if  the  ore  averages  47  per  cent,  of  iron  we 
would  have  1052.8  Ibs.  of  iron  costing  for  freight  25  cts. 

The  freight  on  a  ton  of  calcined  ore  would  also  be  25 
cents,  bat  it  would  contain  54  per  cent,  of  iron,  or  in  the 
ton  1209.6  Ibs.  of  iron.  So  far,  therefore,  as  concerns 
the  transportation  charges  we  would  get  1209.6  Ibs.  of 
iron  in  the  calcined  ore  at  the  same  price  paid  for  1052.8 
Ibs.  in  the  raw  ore.  Each  ton  of  calcined  ore  delivered 
at  the  furnace  would  contain  156.8  Ibs.  of  iron'more  than 
a  ton  of  raw  ore.  If  it  requires  4  men  in  the  stockhouser 
as  bottom-fillers,  to  handle  140  tons  of  raw  ore  per  dayy 
containing  65.8  tons  of  iron,  3  men  could  handle  the 
121.7  tons  of  calcined  ore  required  for  the  same  amount 
of  metal.  So  far  as  concerns  the  handling  of  the  ore  in 
the  stockhouse  there  would  be  a  saving  of  one  man  at 
each  furnace  by  substituting  calcined  ore  for  raw  ore. 

The  economy  becomes  even  more  striking  if  we  con- 
sider the  kiln  as  situated  at  the  furnace,  so  that  the  bot- 
tom-fillers could  draw  the  ore  from  the  shutes.  At  one 
well  managed  plant  this  has  been  the  practice  for  several 
years.  The  trams  come  in  from  the  washer  and  dis- 
charge into  the  kiln.  The  bottom-fillers  draw  from  the 
shutes  into  the  buggies,  and  the  hot  ore  goes  at  once  to 


LOW  GRADE  ORES.  289 

the  furnace.  At  this  establishment  it  has  been  shown 
that  there  is  great  advantage  in  the  use  of  calcined  ore, 
irrespective  of  the  easy  way  of  handling  it  in  use,  and  it 
fortunately  happens  that  it  is  able  to  compare,  for  a 
term  of  years,  the  practice  on  raw  ore,  pile-calcined, 
and  kiln-calcined  ore. 

It  is  not  going  too  far  to  say  that  it  would  be  profitable 
to  erect  kilns  at  the  furnaces,  even  when  the  ore  has  to 
be  hauled  at  a  freight  cost  of  25  cts.  per  ton,  or  even 
more. 

Excessive  freight  charges  on  ore  would,  of  course, 
militate  against  this  proposition,  but  until  they  rise  be- 
yond  40 cts.  per  ton  calcining  would  be  advantageous. 

The  erection  of  kilns  at  the  mines,  except  under  unus- 
ual conditions,  can  not  be  recommended,  for  the  reason 
that  the  life  of  a  brown  ore  deposit  is  uncertain. 

But  at  the  furnace,  and  especially  where  coke  is  made 
on  the  spot  and  it  is  possible  to  calcine  with  waste  gases 
from  the  ovens,  this  objection  is  removed.  The  furnace 
operator  would  be  able  to  buy  ore  from  the  smaller 
mines  which  can  hot  incur  the  expense  of  building  kilns, 
the  entire  process  would  be  under  one  management,  and 
the  utilization  of  gases  now  going  to  waste  would,  of  it- 
self, show  a  profit. 

It  is  a  truth  of  general  application  that  it  pays  to  cal- 
cine brown  ore,  for  it  has  been  shown  to  be  beneficial 
wherever  it  has  been  carefully  and  faithfully  carried  out. 

19 


290          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

CHAPTER  X. 

BASIC    STEEL    AND    BASIC  IRON. 

The  manufacture  of  basic  open-hearth  steel  in  Ala- 
bama began  on  the  8th  of  March  1888  at  North 
Birmingham.  It  was  the  first  attempt  at  steel  making  in 
the  State, and  this  furnace  was  among  the  first  basic 
open  furnaces  built  in  the  United  States,  if  not  the  first. 

The  enterprising  character  of  the  men  composing  the 
Henderson  Steel  and  Manufacturing  Company  in  under- 
taking at  this  early  date  to  enter  upon  the  production  of 
basic  steel  when  there  was  but  one  other  establishment 
in  the  country  is  deserving  of  the  highest  praise. 

There  was  very  little  known  about  basic  steel  then, 
for  the  development  of  the  industry  has  been  rendered 
possible  during  the  last  10  years.  The  Henderson  Steel 
nnd  Manufacturing  company  may,  therefore  claim,  to 
have  been  the  pioneers  in  an  industry  which  has  grown 
to  very  large  proportions  elsewhere  in  this  country  and 
which  now  promises  to  be  of  increasing-importance  here. 

While  the  operations  at  North  Birmingham  did  not 
attain  the  commercial  success  so  well  deserved  by  the 
faith  and  progressiveness  of  the  promoters,  technically 
the  process  even  then  was  successful.  In  its  essential 
construction  and  operation  the  furnace  did  not  differ 
from  those  now  used,  for  although  what  was  known  as 
the  Henderson  process  was  employed  yet  there  was  no 
real  difference  between  it  and  the  more  recent  modifica- 
tions of  the  basic  open-hearth. 

To  the  kindness  of  Mr.  H.  F.  Wilson,  the  secretary  of 
the  company,  the  writer  is  indebted  for  some  data  con- 
cerning this  furnace.  It  was  of  13  tons  capacity,  and 
made  200  heats  before  it  was  closed  down.  The.  maxi- 
mum out  put  in  any  one  day  of  24  hours  was  25  tons, 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON. 


291 


and  about  1600  tons  of  steel  were  made.  The  steel  was 
sold,  as  ingots,  to  the  Bessemer  Rolling  Mill  Company, 
Bessemer,  Ala.,  for  about  $22.00  a  ton  and  they  made 
most  excellent  boiler  plate  of  it.  Crellin  and  Nails, 
Birmingham,  manufactured  boilers  of  it,  and  some  of 
their  work  may  now  be  seen  in  the  grain  mill  of  Mr.  B  . 
B.  Comer,  Birmingham. 

The  pig  iron  used  was  mottled  and  white  of  local  pro- 
duction. Mr.  E.  E.  Robinson  was  melter.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  the  composition  of  the  heats  and  the 
analyses  of  the  steel  from  heat  No.  93  to  105,  inclusive 


292 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA, 


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BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  293 

Additional  information  in  regard  to  the  early  history 
of  steel-making  in  Alabama  is  contained  in  a  pamphlet 
entitled  ''Basic  Steel.  Report  of  committee  on  its  suc- 
cessful and  economical  manufacture  by  the  Henderson 
Steel  and  Manufacturing  Company,  North  Birmingham, 
Ala.,  August  27th,  1890." 

This  committee  was  composed  of  A.  B.  Johnston, 
president  Birmingham  Chamber  of  Commerce;  W.  H. 
Hassinger,  manager  Alabama  Rolling  Mill,  Gate  City  ; 
G.  L.  Leutscher,  chemist  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  and  Rail- 
way .Co.  ;  P.  Leeds,  superintendent  machinery  Louisville 
and  Nashville  Railway  Company ;  -and  H.  R.  Johnston. 

Mr.  Gogin  was  at  that  time  manager  of  the  steel 
'Company. 

Tliis  committee  reported  that  on  August  19th,  1890, 
there  was  charged  into  the  furnace — 

White  Pig  Iron  from  Pounds. 

DeBardeleben  furnaces 

Bessemer,  Ala 15,000 

Pit  scrap 5 ,525 

Miscellaneous  scrap 4,514 

Brown  ore,  55  per  ct.  iron 742 

Spiegel 200 

Ferro-manganese 200 

Total  metal 26,181 

The  quantity  of  fluorspar  and  limestone  was  not  given. 

The  yield  of  metal  was —  Pounds. 

24  steel  ingots 22,250 

Pit  scrap 1,510 

The  yield  then  was  85  per  ct.  of  ingots  and  6  per  ct. 
pit  scrap,  and  the  loss  of  metal  about  9  per  ct. 

The  committee,  further  reported  that  basic  billets  and 
slabs  .could  be  made  for  $22.00  a  ton. 


294         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

The  analyses  quoted  were  as  follows  : 

WHITE    PIG    IRON. 

Silicon   .  .  -  0 .43  per  ct. 

Sulphur 0.149    • ' 

Phosphorus 0.68      ' ' 

Manganese 0.10      " 

BROWN  ORE. 

Metallic   iron 56.12  per  ct. 

Phosphorus , 0.34      •' 

Insoluble  residue 4.99      " 

LIMESTONE. 

Carbonate  of  Lime 95.71  per  ct. 

Alumina  and  Oxide  of  Iron 1,04    -  " 

Silica 1.33      " 

STEEL. 

Silicon Trace . 

Sulphur 0.06  per  ct. 

Phosphorus 0.018     " 

Manganese 0.29      " 

Carbon 0.08      '" 

The  writer  made  an  analysis,  in  1890,  of  a  sample  of 
the  first  heat  of  basic  open-hearth  steel  March  8th,  1888. 
which  had  been  drawn  out,  under  a  hammer  and  found 
its  composition  as  follows  : 

Analysis  of  the  first  heat  of  basic  open-hearth  steel  made- 
in  Alabama,  at  North  Birmingham,  March  8,  1888  : 

Silicon 0.023  per  ct. 

Sulphur 0.014      " 

Phosphorus 0.038      " 

Manganese 0 .144      ' ' 

Combined  Carbon ,  . .  . .  .0.484     " 

Graphitic  Carbon ', .  ,  ..0.095      "• 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  295 

The  report  of  the  committee  also  stated  that  the  phys- 
ical tests  of  the  steel  they  examined  were  as  follows—- 
plate f  xl. 

4-in.  sect.      8-in.  sect. 

Lbs.  Lbs. 

Ultimate  tensile  strength  per  sq.  in . .  48,110         48,460 

Elastic  limit  per  sq.  inch 32,030         32,275 

Reduction  of  area 54.7  perct.  57.4  perct. 

Elongation 32.0      "       28.0  perct. 

A  sprue  of  the  first  group  of  ingots  was  forged  into  a 
bar  1  inch  square,  and  was  bent  when  cold,  with  a 
sledge  until  perfectly  folded.  Not .  the  slightest  flaw 
could  be  detected  at  the  fold. 

Excellent  razors  and  knives  were  also  made  of  this 
steel,  and  some  of  them  are  still  in  use  in  Birmingham, 
It  is,  therefore,  to  be  concluded  that  the  first  basic  open 
hearth  furnace  in  Alabama,  and  one  of  the  first  in  the 
United  States,  beginning  operations  in  March,  1888, 
made  excellent  steel  of  native  materials.  The  process 
was  handicapped  with  white  pig  iron  high  in  sulphur 
and  of  irregular  composition,  as  also  by  lack  of  experi- 
ence on  the  part  of  the  operators,  and  many  other  ob- 
stacles besetting  a  new  enterprise,  but  the  promoters 
had  the  courage  of  conviction,  and  went  as  far  as  their 
means  would  permit.  They  are  entitled  to  and  should 
receive  the  highest  commendations  for  what  they  did, 
for  they  laid  the  foundations  of  the  steel  industry  in 
this  State.  The  times  were  not  ripe  for  the  commercial 
success  of  the  enterprise  then,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
middle  of  1897  that  they  seemed  to  hold  out  promise  of 
fruition. 

The  Jefferson  Steel  Company  succeeded  the  Hender- 
son Company,  and  operated  the  North  Birmingham 
furnace  in  1892  and  1893,  making,  perhaps,  1600  tons 
of  steel,  under  the  management  of  Ernst  Prochaska. 


296        GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

The  operations  were  suspended  during  the  summer  of 
1893.  Here  the  matter  rested  as  to  Birmingham  until 
1897,  for  the  crude  experiments  carried  on  under  the 
Hawkins  process  at  North  Birmingham  in  1895  can  not 
fairly  be  included  in  a  historical  sketch  of  the  rise  of 
the  steel  industry  here. 

The  amount  of  basic  open  hearth  steel  made  at  Birm- 
ingham, all  of  native  materials,  except  as  to  spiegel, 
ferro-manganese  and  fluorspar,  up  to  July  22nd,  1897, 
would  not  exceed  3500  tons,  if  indeed  it  is  above  3000 
tons. 

Basic  Open-hearth  Steel  at  Fort  Payne. 

Steel  was  next  made  at  Fort  Payne,  but  in  spite  of 
repeated  inquiries  no  definite  information  could  be  se- 
cured. 

BIRMINGHAM  ROLLING  MILL  COMPANY. 

In  1897  the  Birmingham  Rolling  Mill  Company, 
which  had  been  in  successful  operation  for  a  number  of 
years,  and  which  of  late  had  been  buying  steel  billets 
in  Pennsylvania  and  rolling  them  into  shape  here,  took 
up  the  matter.  The  citizens  of  Birmingham  subscribed 
to  the  undertaking  to  the  amount  of  $40,000  and  the 
first  basic  open  hearth  furnace  went  in  July  22nd,  1897, 
being  followed  by  the  second  on  October  25th.  Both 
furnaces  were  designed  and  built  by  S.  R.  Smythe  &  Co., 
Pittsburg,  Pa.,  with  a  capacity  of  35  tons  each  to  the 
charge.  The  iron  used  was  the  basic  iron  made  at  the 
Alice  furnace,  within  200  yards  of  the  mill.  The  quality 
of  the  metal  has  been  and  is  now  of  an  excellent  quality, 
as  the  following  analyses  of  the  first  245  heats  will 
show,  in  respect  of  chemical  composition. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  metal  is  given  in  the 
following  tables  : 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  297 

Analyses  of  the  first  245  heats  of  basic  open-hearth 
steel  made  by  the  Birmingham  Rolling  Mill  Company, 
Birmingham,  Alabama,  from  July  22nd  to  December 
31st,  inclusive,  1897. 

SULPHUR. 


0.015 

to  0.020  

±ieais. 
.  ..31= 

70 
12.7 

0.020 

"  0.025  

.  .  .  69= 

28.1 

0.025 

"  0.030  

.  .  .81  = 

33.1 

0.030 

"  0.035  

...33= 

13.5 

0.035 

"  0.040  

...17= 

7.0 

0.040 

"  0.045  

.-.  .    8— 

3.2 

0.045 

«  0.050  

...2= 

0.8 

0.050 

"   0.055..  

...    1— 

0.4 

0.055 

"   0  060  

]  = 

0.4 

0.060 

"   0.065  

2— 

0.8 

245 

Average  sulphur  

0.028% 

PHOSPHORUS. 

Heats. 

% 

0.001 

to  0.005  

.    100= 

40.8 

0.005 

"  0.010  

.      49— 

20.0 

0.010 

"  0.015  

.      15— 

6.1 

0.015 

"   0.020  

.      16= 

6.5 

0.020 

"  0.025  

.      18= 

7.3 

0.025 

"   0.030..  

.      13— 

5.3 

0.030 

"  0.035  

.        8— 

3.3 

0..035 

"  0.040  

5— 

2  0 

0.040 

"   0.045  

.       6— 

2.4 

0.045 

"  0.050  

3= 

1.2 

0.050 

"  0.055  

1= 

0.4 

0.055 

"  0.060.  . 

4= 

1.6 

2&8         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA 


0.060 

«  0.065       

0.065 

"  0.070   

0090 

"  0.095  

0.095 

"  0.100  

0.100 

«  0.150  

0.150 

"  0.200.. 

2=  0.8 

1=  0.4 

l^=  0.4 

1=  0.4 

1=  0.4 

1=  0.4 


245 

Average  phosphorus 0.012  % 

Average  manganese,  0.45. 
carbon,.  .  .  0.18. 
silicon..  ..0.008. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  181  heats  out  of  245,  or  73.9 
per  cent.,  the  sulphur  reached  a  maximum  of  0.030  per 
cent.,  while  in  64  heats,  or  26.1  per  cent.,  it  was  above 
0.030  per  cent.  In  only  14  heats  out  of  245,  or  5.6  per 
cent.,  was  it  above  0.040  per  cent. 

In  a  list  of  sulphur  estimations  in  basic  open  hearth 
steel,  given  by  H.  H.  Campbell  (Manufacture  and  Prop- 
erties of  Structural  Steel,  1896,  pp.  321  and  322),  the 
number  of  heats  examined  was  973.  Of  these,  255 
heats,  or  26.2  per  cent.,  showed  a  maximum  sulphur  of 
0.030  per  cent.,  while  618,  or  63.5  per  cent.,  gave  sul- 
phur above  0.030  per  cent. 

The  conditions  as  to  sulphur  are  then  seen  to  be  in 
the  case  of  the  Birmingham  steel  almost  the  reverse  of 
those  maintaining  in  the  basic  steel  quoted  by  Mr. 
Campbell.  In  the  Birmingham  steel  73.9  per  cent,  of 
the  heats  showed  a  maximum  sulphur  of  0.030  per  cent., 
while  in  the  steels  quoted  by  Mr.  Campbell,  and  pre- 
sumably of  northern  make,  there  were  63.5  per  cent. 
above  0.030  per  cent,  in  sulphur. 

In  the  Birmingham  steel  there  were  26.1  per  cent,  of 
the  heats  with  sulphur  above  0.030  per  cent.,  as  against 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  299 

63.5  per  cent,  in  the  other  steels. 

Furthermore,  in  Mr.  Campbell's  steels  there  were  143 
heats  out  of  973,  or  14.7  percent.,  in  which  the  sulphur 
was  above  0.040  per  cent,  as  against  14  heats  out  of 
245,  or  5.6  per  cent.,  of  Birmingham  steel,  and  in  Mr. 
Campbell's  steels  there  were  87  heats  out  of  973,  or  8.9 
per  cent.,  in  which  the  sulphur  was  above  0.050  per 
cent.,  as  against  4  out  of  245,  or  1.6  per  cent.,  in  the 
Birmingham  steel. 

It  is,  however,  in  respect  of  phosphorus  that  the  chief 
obstacles  were  encountered  and  successfully  overcome. 

The  sulphur  may  be  considered  an  element  whose 
maximum  in  the  steel  may  be  more  easily  controlled 
than  that  of  phosphorus,  especially  when  the  pig  iron 
used  is  low  in  sulphur.  If  the  maximum  sulphur  in 
the  pig  iron  is  0.050  per  cent,  the  removal  of  50  per 
cent,  would  cause  the  steel  to  carry  from  this  source, 
0.025  per  cent.  But  with  phosphorus  at  0.75  per  cent, 
in  the  pig  iron  86.6  per  cent,  must  be  removed  to  bring 
the  steel  down  to  0.10  per  cent,  the  maximum  allowable 
under  most  circumstances,  while  93.3'per  cent,  must  be 
removed  to  bring  it  to  0.05  per  cent. 

Basic  open  hearth  steel  has  been  made  in  Birming- 
ham of  pig  iron,  pit  scrap  and  ore,  in  which  the  phos- 
phorus was  below  0.050  per  cent,  and  in  some  cases  be- 
low 0.010  per  cent.  The  phosphorus  estimations  given 
in  the  preceding  lists  are  of  steel  made  with  various 
mixtures  of  pig  iron  and  scrap  and  ore,  and  there  is 
practically  no  difference  between  them.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  list  shows  that  149  heats  out  of  245,  or  60.8 
percent,  gave  a  maximum  phosphorus  of  0.010  per  cent, 
while  180  heats  out  of  245,  or  73.4  per  cent,  gave  a  max- 
imum phosphorus  of  0.020  per  cent.  Putting  the  phos- 
phorus limit  in  the  very  highest  grade  of  basic  open- 
hearth  steel  at  0.030  per  cent,  we  find  that  86  per  cent. 


300          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

of  the  heats  showed  a  maximum  of  this  amount,  and  in 
40.8  per  cent,  of  the  heats  the  maximum  phosphorus 
ivas  0.005  per  cent. 

In  the  results  given  by  Mr.  Campbell  (ut  supra)  we 
find  that  in  157  heats  out  of  973,  or  16.1  per  cent  the 
maximum  phosphorus  was  0.010  per  cent,  as  against 
60.8  percent  in  the  Birmingham  steel  with  a  maximum 
of  0.010  per  cent.  In  the  northern  steels  there  were  770 
heats  out  of  973,  or  79.1  per  cent,  in  which  the  maxi- 
mum phosphorus  was  0.020  per  cent,  as  against  73.4 
per  cent,  in  the  Birmingham  steel  with  a  maximum  of 
0.020  per  cent.  The  percentage  of  heats  in  the  north- 
ern steels  with  maximum  phosphorus  0.020  per  cent,  is 
somewhat  higher  than  in  the  Birmingham  steel.  In 
the  northern  metal  there  were  no  heats  in  which  the 
phosphorous  was  below  0.005  per  cent. while,  as  before 
stated  of  the  Birmingham  steel  40.8  per  cent,  of  the 
heats  had  maximum  phosphorous  0.005  per  cent. 

Of  the  northern  steels  there  were  898  heats  out  of  973, 
or  92.3  per  cent,  with  maximum  phosphorus  0.030  per 
cent,  as  against  86  per  cent  in  the  Birmingham  steel. 
But  when  one  considers  the  number  of  the  heats  of  north- 
steel  in  which  the  phosphorus  is  above  0.030  percent  it 
is  found  that  they  are  75  out  of  973,  or  7.7  percent, 
while  the  corresponding  percentage  in  the  Birmingham 
steel  is  13.7,  nearly  twice  as  many. 

Taking  everything  into  consideration,  however,  with 
due  regard  to  the  newness  of  the  conditions  surround- 
ing the  production  of  steel  in  Birmingham,  and  the  fact 
that  the  results  here  given  are  from  many  different 
mixtures  in  the  furnace  we  conclude  that  in  chemical 
composition  the  steel  compares  very  favorably  with  stan- 
dard makes  of  ngrthern  steel,  and  that  the  severest 
specifications  could  be  successfully  met. 

The  following  table  gives  the  results  of    the  examina- 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON. 


301 


tion  of  some  basic  open  hearth  steel  plates  made  by  the 
Birmingham  Rolling  mill,  for  elastic  limit,  tensile 
strength,  elongation  and  reduction.  All  the  chemical 
analyses,  as  well  as  the  physical  tests  were  made  by  Mr. 
David  Hancock  and  the  writer  in  the  Phillips  Testing 
Laboratory,  Birmingham. 

TABLE  XLV. 

Giving  Physical  Tests  of  Basic  Open  Hearth   Steel    Plates    made  by 
the  Birmingham  Kolling  Company,  1897 — 1898. 


Specimen  of 
Plate. 

Size. 

Elas.  Limit 
Lbs. 
Per  sq.  Inch. 

Ten.  Str. 
Lbs 
Per  sq.    Inch 

Elongation 
in  8  Inch  per 
Cent. 

Reduct 
of  area 

Per  Cent. 

5-16  inch. 

85.360 

65,600 

25.7 

49.6 

5-16  inch. 

34.720 

62,440 

27.2 

52.6 

5-16  inch. 

35,200 

63,720 

27.5 

51.5 

5-16  inch. 

33,300 

58,290 

26  0 

49.6 

5-8     inch. 

33,930 

57.900 

;5.0 

53.0 

5-8     inch. 

28  900 

53,680 

32.5 

51.0 

5-8     inch. 

31.040 

52,510 

27.0 

52.8 

5-8     inch. 

32,360 

53,390 

31.7 

56.5 

7-16  inch. 

31,400 

50,520 

32.0 

64.0 

7-16  inch. 

32,360 

50,650 

?0.7 

61.6 

7-16  inch. 

29,960 

51.130 

30.0 

60.8 

7-16  inch. 

32,790 

53,960 

27.2 

57.4 

7-16  inch. 

32.760 

53,360 

26.5 

55.7 

7-16  inch. 

32,260 

53,420 

30.5 

58.0 

1-4    inch. 

39,560 

58,420 

27.8 

53.1 

1-4     inch. 

41,450 

57,260 

25.0 

54.9 

1-4    inch. 

43,040 

64,380 

25.0 

55.1 

1-4    inch. 

43,470 

63,310 

25.0 

50.6 

1-4    inch. 

44,280 

58,480 

26.7 

55.8 

1-4    inch. 

44,850 

57,490 

26.0 

54.9 

1-4    inch. 

43,590 

56,680 

26.0 

54.9 

l%round. 

32,680 

50.520 

32.5 

63.5 

l^round. 

37.560 

58,940 

30.0 

53.9 

The  plates  tested  were  16  inches  long  over  all,  Siaches 
long  and  2  inches  wide  between  fillets,  with  a  fillet  ra- 
dius of  H  inches.  They  were  pulled  on  a  200,000 
Blehle  Testing  Machine,  with  automatic  extensometer 
and  electric  registration,  the  elongation  being  after- 


302  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY    OF    ALABAMA. 

wards  checked  by  measurements.  Numerous  other 
tests  might  be  given  but  is  is  thought  that  these  will  be 
sufficient  to  show  the  quality  of  the  material  made  from 
the  basic  iron  of  the  Birmingham  district.  Up  to  the 
1st.  of  May  1898,  500  heats  had  been  made  and  the  two 
furnaces  are  now  in  active  operations.  The  material  is 
made  into  boiler  and  tank  plates,  fire-box  sheets,  rounds, 
flats  and  squares,  and  is  sold  under  specifications  as  to 
chemical  composition  and  physical  tests. 

It  is  certainly  excellent  work  even  for  an  old  estab- 
lished steel  works  to  make  basic  open-hearth  steel  of 
such  quality  that  in  245  heats  practically  74  per  cent, 
contained  a  maximum  amount  of  sulphur  of  0.030  per 
cent,  and  86  per  cent,  a  maximum  of  0.030  per  cent,  of 
phosphorus.  These  results  have  been  reached  in  Birm- 
ingham by  the  first  open-hearth  furnaces  on  regular  run, 
and  have  been  extended  over  nearly  six  months. 

Can  they  be  continued  indefinitely?  Are  these  results 
typical  of  what  may  reasonably  be  expected  in  the  fu- 
ture? Were  there  any  favorable  conditions  surrounding 
these  245  heats  from  July  22d  to  December  31st,  that 
would  not  maintain  in  any  number  ?  These  are  vital  ques- 
tions, and  upon  the  answers  to  them  depend  the  future 
of  the  manufacture  of  basic  steel  in  Alabama,  as,  indeed, 
in  the  entire  South,  for  if  this  steel  cannot  be  made  in 
Alabama,  it  cannot  be  made  anywhere  south  of  the 
Potomac  river. 

In  the  Birmingham  district,  as,  indeed,  everywhere 
else,  there  are  two  aspects  of  the  steel  industry — techni- 
cal and  commercial.  While  the  metal  produced  may  be 
of  the  best  quality  so  far  as  concerns  chemical  and  phys- 
ical tests,  and  while  assurance  may  be  given  that  the 
raw  materials,  of  which  the  pig  iron  is  made,  exist  in 
very  large  quantities,  yet,  after  all,  the  main  question 
is,  whether  the  steel  can  secure  and  hold  a  profitable 
market. 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  &Q3 

Technically  the  basic  open-hearth  steel  made  at  Birm- 
ingham-is  of  a  superior  quality.  The  pig  iron,  which  is 
the  chief  constituent,  can  be  made  here  at  a  less  cost 
than  anywhere  in  the  United  States.  These  are  facts 
beyond  dispute.  But  they  are  not  the  only  considera- 
tions which  affect  the  establishment  and  development  of 
the  steel  industry  in  Alabama.  It  is  comparatively 
easy  to  convince  even  the  most  skeptical  that  excellent- 
steel  can  be,  has  been,  and  is  today,  made  here  in  quan- 
tities that  fully  warrant  the  assertion  that  the  matter 
has  long  since  passed  the  experimental  stage.  What  is 
to  be  done  with  the  metal  after  it  is  made?  Can  steel- 
makers in  Alabama  enter  the. steel  market  and  obtain 
for  their  product  the  footing  now  enjoyed  by  Alabama 
pig  iron,  for  instance?  These  are  questions  which  only 
the  lapse  of  time  can  fully  answer.  An  industry  may 
be  established  technically,  and  that  within  a  compara- 
tively short  time,  while  its  establishment  commercially 
may  be  protracted  through  a  number  of  years.  This  is 
is  a  matter  which  in  some  of  its  aspects  is  disconnected 
from  the  quality  of  the  metal,  and  depends  not  only  upon 
the  management,  but  also  and  particularly  upon  the 
especial  kind  of  competition  which  the  metal  has  to 
meet. 

In  rectangular  shapes,  in  rounds,  in  tank  and  boiler 
plate,  in  sheets,  in  structural  material  and  agricultural 
steel,  the  competition  varies  according  to  circumstances, 
and  a  fully  equipped  plant  must  be  able  to  enter  the 
market  offering  the  best  inducements  for  each  class  of 
goods. 

These  are  matters,  however,  which  may  be  left  to  take 
care  of  themselves.  Once  established,  the  two  facts  that 
excellent  steel  is  made  here,  arid  that  the  chief  materials 
of  its  production  are  obtained  in  the  district,  and  the 


304       .  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

growth  of   the  industry  follows  in  accordance  with  the 
usual  laws  of  industrial  development. 

With  the  exception  of  the  magnesite  for  the  lining  of 
the  furnaces  and  fluorspar,  there  is  not  a  single  material 
which  cannot  be  furnished  either  in  the  Birmingham 
district  or  within  easy  reach  of  it. 

Manganese  ore  for  ferro-manganese  and  spiegel,  iron 
ore  for  basic  pig,  ferro-silicon  and  "fix,"  limestone  for 
flux,  can  all  be  obtained  here  as  cheaply  as  at  any  point 
in  the  United  States.  With  large  works  there  might  be 
some  difficulty  in  securing  wrought  and  steel  scrap  to 
supplement  the  scrap  produced  at  the  plant  itself,  but 
excellent  steel  has  been  made  here  without  the  use  of 
outside  scrap.  It  is  not  necessary  to  use  the  pig  and 
scrap  process, for  the  pig  and  ore  process  has  been  used 
with  very  satisfactory  results.  Speaking  from  a  full  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  and  with  due  regard  to  the  emergen- 
cies that  may  arise,  it  is  asserted  that  there  is  not  a  sin- 
gle thing  required  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  that  can- 
not be  produced  here  with  the  exception  of  magnesite 
and  fluorspar. 

This  statement  may  cause  some  surprise,  for  while  it 
is  known  that  basic  iron, which  is  the  chief  raw  material 
for  the  steel-maker,  is  made  here,  yet  it  is  not  known 
that  ore  for  ferro-manganese,  ferro-silicon,  spiegel  and 
"fix"  can  be  obtained  in  Alabama.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  the  resources  of  the  State  were  limited  to  the 
pig  iron  and  the  limestone ,  but  this  is  not  true.  There 
is  no  special  ore  needed  for  ferro-silicon,  and  it  can  be 
made  of  Red  Mt.  ores  quite  as  readily  as  from  the  ore 
now  used  elsewhere.  Ten  years  ago,  without  any  spe- 
cial effort  to  make  high-silicon  iron,  it  was  made  here 
with  7  per  cent,  of  silicon,  and  this  amount  can  be  in- 
creased to  10  per  cent,  if  a  sufficient  demand  should  arise. 
As  to  ferro-manganese  and  spiegel, manganese  ores  of  44 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  305 

to  48  per  cent,  of  manganese  can  be  delivered  in  Birm- 
ingham for  $8  a  ton,  while  the  deposits  of  magnetic 
ore  not  yet  utilized  can  be  drawn  upon  for  material 
carrying  60  per  cent,  of  iron  to  be  used  in  the  pig  and 
ore  process.  But  failing  this,  brown  ore  has  already 
been  used  with  good  results. 

As  to  basic  iron,  the  industry  has  been  established  here 
two  and  a-half  years.  The  iron  has  been  shipped  to  the 
following  steel  makers  : 

Aliquippa  Steel  Co Pittsburg,  Pa- 
American  Steel  F.  Co St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Apollo  I.  &  S.  Co Pittsburg,  Pa. 

A.  &  P.   Roberts    Co Pencoyd,  Pa. 

Birmingham  Rolling  Mill  Co .Birmingham,  Ala. 

Builders'  Iron  Foundry Boston,  Mass, 

Burgess  S.  &  I.  Co Portsmouth,  Ohio. 

Carnegie  Steel  Co.  Ltd .  .Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Cleveland  Rolling  Mill  Co Cleveland,  Ohio. 

DeFour  &  Bruzzo Italy. 

DeKalb  Company Fort  Payne,  Ala. 

Elmira  I.  &  S.  R.  M.  Co Elmira,  N.Y. 

Granite  City  Steel  Co E.  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Illinois  Steel  Co Chicago,  111. 

Jefferson  Steel  &  Mfg.  Co Birmingham,  Ala. 

Jones  &  Laughlins,  Ltd Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Kellogg  Weldless  Tube  Co Findlay,  Ohio. 

Kirkpatrick  &  Co Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Midland  Steel  Co Muncie,  Ind. 

Mt.  Vernon  Car  Mfg.  Co Mt.  Vernon,  111. 

Nashua  I.  &  S.  Co Nashua, New  Hampshire. 

Naylor  &  Co Pitts.! .<urg,  Pa. 

Otis  Steel  Co.  Ltd .Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Pacific  R.  M.  Co San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Park  Bros Pittsburg,  Pa. 

20 


306          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Passaic  Rolling.  Mill Patterson,  N.  J. 

St.  Charles  Car  Co St.  Charles,  Mo. 

Shickle,  Harrison  &  Howard '.  .  .St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Societe  H.  F.  F.  de  Feme Ibaly. 

Spang  S.  &  I.  Co .Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Watson,  Jas.  &  Co.,  Agents Glasgow,  Scotland. 

The  quality  of  the  basic  iron  made  in  the  Birmingham 
district  is  best  shown  in  an  article  prepared  by  the  wri- 
ter for  The  Mineral  Industry,  Vol.  V.,  The  Scientific 
Publishing  Co.,  N,  Y.,  1896.  With  some  corrections 
.  and  additions  it  is  given  here,  with  the  understanding 
that  if  anything  the  quality  of  the  iron  therein  described 
has  improved  during  1897.  At  any  rate  there  has  been 
no  deterioration . 

Basic  iron  of  this  quality  can  be  furnished  here  regu- 
larly and  in  any  desired  quantity. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  BASIC  IRON  IN 
ALABAMA. 

From  the  Mineral  Industry,  Vol.  V.,  1896. 
(By  Permission  of  the  Scientific  Publishing  Company,  N.  Y.) 

The  production  of  basic  pig  iron  for  the  open-hearth 
steel  furnace  has  become  an  important  industry  in  the 
United  States.  It  has  had  a  rapid  growth  in  Northern 
and  Central  iron  and  steel  districts,  and  is  recognized  as 
a  competitor  of  the  Bessemer  and  aci  1  open-hearth  pro- 
cesses. The  competition  will  probably  become,  in  the 
immediate  future,  still  more  formidable.  The  'discovery 
in  Minnesota  of  enormous  deposits  of  non-Bessemer  iron 
ore,  which  can  be  cheaply  mined  and  transported,  must 
lead  to  the  establishment  of  basic  pig  and  steel  plants  in 
the  Northwest,  because  the  exhaustion  of  the  more  ac- 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  307 

cessible  Bessemer  ores  of  the  Lake  regions  steadily  and 
rapidly  proceeds  by  the  increased  demands  made  upon, 
them.  Indeed,  it  is  an  open  question  if  we  have' not 
seen  the  high-water  mark  of  the  output  of  Bessemer  and 
other  acid  steels. 

So  long  as  an  abundant  supply  of  Bessemer  ore  was 
assured  at  fair  prices  the  attention  of  the  steel-makers 
was,  in  a  measure,  restricted  to  ores  which  would  yield 
pig  iron  containing  not  more  than  0.10  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phorus. The  extraordinary  development  of  the  demand 
for  "steel  rails,  bridge  and  structural  steel  of  great 
strength  and  ductility,  and  above  all  the  growing  disuse 
of  wrought  iron,  have  combined  to  stimulate  the  produc- 
tion of  Bessemer  steel.  But  it  has  now  been  conclusive- 
ly proved  that  this  old  favorite  can  no  longer  hold  the 
field  it  once  occupied. 

It  is  no  longer  a  sine  qua  non  for  the  making  of  good 
steel  that  ore  of  less  than  0.05  parts  of  phosphorus  per 
50  parts  of  iron  shall  be  used,  and  consequently  it  is 
toward  the  more  phosphoritic  ores  that  attention  is  being 
directed.  This  is  well,  for  assuredly,  it  would  not  be 
wise  to  wait  until  the  price  of  Bessemer  steel,  due  to  the 
increasing  scarcity  of  Bessemer .  ores,  should  bring  us 
into  an  awkward  situation.  Hence,  more  interest  is 
manifested  in  the  manufacture  and  use  of  basic  steel 
than  ever  before,  and  by  far  the  greater  tonnage  of  steel 
works  built  during  the  last  three  years  consists  of  basic 
open-hearth. 

Some  may  argue  that  the  investments  in  the  non-Bes- 
semer Lake  ores  are  compelling  capitalists  to  provide  an 
outlet  for  their  product.  There  may  be  a  modicum  of 
truth  in  this,  but  the  non-Bessemer  ores  could  not  be 
sold  to  steel-makers  at  any  price  if  it  were  not  perfectly 
feasible  to  utilize  them,  not  merely  for  mixing  with 
other  ores,  but  of  and  for  themselves. 


308         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Two  classes  of  ore  represent  the  extremes  of  chemical' 
composition  in  respect  to  their  applicability  to  steel- 
making — the  high-grade  Bessemer  ores  with  phosphorus 
below  0.05  per  cent.,  and  the  highly  phosphoritic  ores 
with  phosphorus  not  below  1  per  cent.  The  first  find 
their  adaptation  in  the  acid  Bessemer  and  the  acid  open- 
hearth  processes,  the  latter  for  the  most  part  in  the  basic 
Bessemer  or  Thomas  process.  Between  them  lie  fully 
three-fourths  of  the  iron  ore  deposits  of  the  world — ores 
which  yield  pig  iron  carrying  from  0.10  per  cent,  to  1.0 
per  cent,  of  phosphorus.  In  this  country  the  Thomas 
process,  based  on  the  use  of  pig  iron  containing  from  2 
to  3  per  cent,  of  phosphorus,  has  had  a  very  limited  ap- 
plication. The  Pottstown  Iron  Company,  Pottstown^ 
Pa., -was,  until  this  year,  when  the  Troy  Steel  and  Iron 
Company  began  operations,  the  only  establishment  that 
attempted  its  manufacture  on  a  large  scale.  The  qual- 
ity of  the  steel  made  was  excellent;,  and  -there  was  a  fair 
market  for  the  slag  as  a  phosphatic  fertilizer,  but  the  use 
of  this  process  has  not  been  extended,  and  practically  all 
the  steel  made  in  the  United  States,  over  6,000,000  tons 
annually,  has  been  made  from  pig  iron  of  less  than  0.10 
per  cent.,  or  not  more  than  1.0  per  cent,  of  phosphorus. 
Unfortunately  the  exact  statististics  cannot  be  secured, 
since  the  production  of  acid  open-hearth  and  basic  open- 
hearth  steel  are  not  given  separately,  but  it  is  well 
known  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  increase  in 
steel  production  is  to  be  credited  to  basic  metal. 

The  following  table,  taken  from  the  reports  of  Jas.  M. 
Swank,  Manager  of  the  American  Iron  and  Sieel  Asso- 
ciation, shows  the  production  of  Bessemer  steel  and 
open  hearth  steels  ingots  in  the  United  States  from  1877 
to  the  close  of  1896. 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON. 

TABLE  XLVI. 


309 


Production  of  Bessemer  Steel  and  Open  Hearth  Steel 
Ingots  in  the  United  States,  Tons  of  2240  Ibs. 


YEARS. 

Bessemer 
Steel   Ingots. 

Open-hearth 
Steel   Ingots. 

187?  

500,524 

22,349 

1878        .                      

653,773 

32,255 

1879                           

829,439 

50,259 

1880 

1,074,262 

100.851 

1881    ' 

1,374,247 

131,202 

1882  

1,514,687 

143,341 

1883  

1,477,345 

119,356 

1884    

1,375,531 

117,515 

1885         

1,519,430 

133,376 

1886                           

2,269,190 

218,973 

1887  

2  936,033 

322,069 

1888  

2  511,161 

314,318 

1889 

2  930,204 

374,543 

1890 

3,688  871 

513,232 

1891  

3,247J417 

579,753 

1892  

4,168,435 

669,889 

1893  

3  215,6*6 

737,890 

1894  

3,571,313 

784,936 

1895  .  ,  

4,909,128 

1,137,182 

1896  

3,919  906 

1,298,700 

1897  . 

1,«08,671 

In  these  figures  are  included  the  production  of  direct 
castings. 

One  can  not  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  remarkable 
increase  in  the  production  of  open-hearth  steel  during 
the  last  few  years,  and  allthough  by  no  means  all  of 
this  steel  is  basic  open-hearth,  yet  the  increase  is  very 
largely  due  to'thejextension  of  this  process. 


310    .  .   GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 

The  development  of  this  process  has  been  the  special 
feature  of  the  steel  trade  during  the  last  seven  years. 

The  purpose  of  the  present  paper  is  to  direct  attention 
to  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron  suitable  for  the  basic 
open-hearth  steel  process  from  materials  not  hitherto 
considered  as  very  promising,  viz  ;  the  ores,  fluxes  and 
fuels  of  Alabama. 

The  manufacture  of  ordinary  grades  of  foundry,  mill 
and  pipe  iron  in  this  state  is  established  on  a  firm  foun- 
dation, but  it  was  not  until  1895,  that  it  was  proved 
that  pig  iron  suitable  for  steel  making  could  be  made 
here  regularly  and  on  any  desired  scale.  It  has  been 
thought  best  to  restrict  these  remarks  to  the  Birming- 
ham district  in  Alabama,  because  it  is  here  that  the  pro- 
duction of  basic  iron  has  attained  its  largest  proportions, 
and  that  a  great  number  of  analysis  of  stock  and  pro- 
duct have  been  made  for  a  year  or  more.  "While  it  is 
true  that  furnaces  elsewhere  in  the  South  especially  in 
Virginia,  have  made  basic  iron,  and  can  do  so  success- 
fully it  is  believed  that  the  results  will  not  differ  essen- 
tially, except  as  to  cost,  from  those  on  record  here.  The 
analysis  of  the  tables  of  production  and  cost  accounts 
covering  75,000  tons  of  basic  iron  in  the  Birmingham 
district  will  represent  the  industry  as  favorably  as  can 
be  expected  any  where  in  the  South. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  vital  difference  between  any 
two  districts  in  the  South  would  be  in  respect  of  cost, 
and  not  of  quality.  The  quality  of  the  iron  made  would 
depend  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  specification  of  the 
contract,  for  it  is  obvious  that  if  these  are  severe  the  risk 
of  increased  percentages  of  costs  not  suitable  for  ship- 
ment, as  also  the  cost  production,  would  become  greater. 

Generally  speaking,  Southern  iron  men  at  present  and 
Southern  steel  men  in  the  future  must  work  with  ores 
that  put  from  0.30%  to  0.80%  of  phosphorus  in  the 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  311 

iron.  The  ores  are  much  too  high  in  phosphorus  for 
Bessemer  metal  and  much  too  low  in  phosphorus  for 
Thomas  metal. 

The  southern  iron  trade  has  been  marvellously  de- 
veloped during  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years,  and  the 
costs  of  production  have  been  forced  to  a  point  not  an- 
ticipated by  the  keenest  observers,  but  it  has  been  built 
up  on  N  material  not  intended  for  steel  works,  but  for 
foundries,  mills,  and  pipe  works. 

It  is  to  the  same  iron  that  we  must  look  if  we  are  to 
make  steel.  There  must  be  less  silicon  and  less  sulphur 
in  the  iron,  elements  within  easy  control  of  an  experien- 
ced furnaceman,  but  otherwise  it  will  be  the  same  iron 
as  is  made  every  day.  It  will  be,  and  it  must  be  made 
from  local  materials,  and  in  the  same  furnaces  and  by 
the  same  men  as  the  present  iron.  It  will  differ  in  com- 
position only,  and  the  difference  will  not  very  great, 
after  all.  Under  specifications  likely  to  continue,  the 
maximum  silicon  must  be  1  per  cent,  the  maximum  sul- 
phur 0.050  per  cent,  with  phosphorus  about  0.75  per 
cent.  Although  this  latter  element  may,  at  times,  not  ex- 
ceed 0.60  per  cent.  For  the  most  part,  however,  the 
phosphorus  will  vary  from  0.75  per  cent,  to  0.85  per 
cent.  T ='.6  amount  of  phosphorus  allowable  in  basic 
stock  is  to  some  extent  controlled  by  the  exigencies  of  the 
trade,  and  is  subject  to  greater  variation  than  either 
silicon  or  sulphur.  In  many  cases  it  may  reach  1.0  per 
cent,  and  considerable  shipments  have  been  made  with 
this  as  a  maximum,  while  on  the  other  hand  larger  ship- 
ments have  been  made  with  a  maximum  of  0.75  per 
cent. 

If  concentrates  or  other  rich  ores  were  used  in  the 
blast  furnaces,  the  phosphorus  in  the  pig  would  be 
lowered,  not  because  the  phosphorus  is  removed  from 
the  ore,  but  because  the  amount  of  ore  required  per  ton 


312         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

of  iron  is  lessened.  For  instance,  if  it  requires  2.30  tons 
of  ore  per  ton  of  iron,  and  the  ore  contains  0.32  per  cent, 
of  phosphorus,  we  would  expect  to  find  in  the  iron,  from 
the  ore  alone,  0.73  per  cent,  of  phosphorus.  But  if  the 
amount  of  ore  per  ton  of  iron  were  reduced  to  2  tons,  the 
phosphorus  remaining  the  same,  there  would  be  0.64  per 
cent  in  the  iron. 

It  is  well  known  that  Alabama  ores,  so  far  as  ex- 
plored, can  not  be  used  in  the  production  of  Besse- 
mer iron.  Isolated  bodies  of  brown  ore  (limonite,)  and 
perhaps  some  of  the  magnetites,  may  be  suitable  for 
this  purpose,  but  no  one  who  has  had  experience  with 
such  ores  here  would  think  of  founding  upon  them  an 
industry  of  this  kind,  for  they  are  unreliable  in  compo- 
sition. The  brown- ores  are  generally  richer  in  iron 
than  the  hematites,  and  are  almost  always  lower  in  sili- 
ca. In  the  production  of  basic  iron  they  are  of  great 
importance,  as  will  hereinafter  appear.  Alabama  is 
devoid  of  Bessemer  ore  in  large  quantities,  so  far  as  is 
now  known,  and  it  is  also  nob  to  be  considered  as  a 
source  of  ore  suitable  for  Thomas  pig,  unless  certain  de- 
posits of  high  phosphorus  hematites,  red  and  brown,  not 
fully  explored,  should  be  found  to  be  workable.  Some 
of  the  fossiliferous  ores  of  the  Clinton  formation  contain 
from  1.5  per  cent  to  5.  per  cent  of  phosphorus,  and 
would  be  suitable  for  the  production  of  Thomas  pig,  if 
concentrated.  They  carry  from  35  to  40  per  cent  of  iron, 
and  about  the  same  amount  of  silica.  By  the  use  of 
the  Wetherill  process  they  can  be  concentrated  to  50  per 
cent  of  iron,  and  even  above. 

Such  ores  as  can  be  obtained  here  for  years  to  come, 
so  far  as  is  positively  known,  can  be  made  into  steel  only 
by  the  basic  open-hearth.  Even  the  duplex  process, 
with  its  more  or  less  successful  conjoining  of  the  Bes- 
sjemer  and  the  open-hearth,  must  be  excluded  in  the  light 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  313 

of  the  experience  of  the  last  twelve  months.  There  is 
no  need  to  desiliconize  the  pig  iron  after  it  has  come 
from  the  furnace,  or  even  to  desulphurize  it.  These 
operations  can  be  conducted  in  the  blast  furnace  itself 
with  a  certainty  and  a  regularity  that  renders  any  fur- 
ther experiments  with  desiliconizing  and  desulphurizing 
processes  wholly  unnecessary.  In  the  interval  between 
the  production  of  the  first  basic  iron,  on  regular  orders, 
in  1888,  and  the  fall  of  1895,  when  large  orders  were 
taken  under  stringent  specifications,  there  was  more  or 
less  doubt,  even  among  the  best  informed  and  most  pro- 
gressive iron  men,  as  to  the  possibility  of  producing 
first-class  basic  iron  from  local  materials.  There  was  al- 
ways the  reservation  of  the  use  of  some  desiliconizing 
and  desulphurizing  process  to  be  applied  to  the  iron  after 
it  had  left  the  furnace.  It  is  true  that  some  basic  iron 
was  made  here  in  the  spring  of  1888  for  use  in  the 
sa  called  Henderson  basic  open-hearth  furnace  at  North 
Birmingham  ;  and  again  in  the  winter  of  1892,  and. the 
spring  of  1893,  for  the  Jefferson  Steel  Company,  success- 
or to  the  Henderson,  but  the  orders  were  not  large,  and 
the  iron  was  made  almost  exclusively  from  brown  ore. 
When  it  became  possible  to  secure  large  orders  it  was 
recognized  that  the  iron  could  not  be  made  frombrown 
ore,  because  an  adequate  supply  was  not  obtainable,  and 
even  if  it  had  been,  the  cost  of  all-brown  ore  iron  would 
have  wiped  out  the  profit.  There  may  be  places  in  the 
S)uth,  orevenin  Alabama,  where  brown  ore  can  be  se- 
cured in  such  quantity  and  of  such  quality  and  price  as  to 
warrant  its  exclusive  use  for  basic  iron,  but  Birmingham 
is  not  one  of  them.  If  pig  iron  suitable  for  conversion 
into  steel  can  not  be  made  in  the  Birmingham  district 
of  local  red  hematite  in  admixture  with  brown  ore,  the 
commercial  manufacture  of  steel  from  Birmingham  iron 


314         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

can  not  be  accomplished,  either  here  or  elsewhere. 

The  true  significance  of  the  production  of  the  75,000 
tons  of  basic  iron  made  here  during  the  first  year  lies 
not  in  the  fact  that  it  was  made  at  a  cost  that  allowed 
it  to  be  sent  to  distant  markets,  but  in  the  fact  that  it 
was  made  of  ores  that  can  be  and  are  produced  here 
every  day  in  the  year,  and  that  can  be  laid  down  in  the 
stockhouses  for  60  cents,  and  $1,00  per  ton.  The  pro- 
duction of  these  75,OCO  tons  of  basic  iron  is,  therefore, 
one  of  the  noteworthy  occurrences  in  the  development 
of  the  iron  and  steel  industry  of  the  United  States. 

Perhaps  the  commonest  criticism  of  Alabama  iron 
was  that  it  carried  too  much  silicon  rather  than  too  little. 
With  the  silvery  irons  showing  over  5  per  cent,  of  this 
element,  and  the  foundry  grades,  at  times,  ranging  front 
2.50  per  cent,  to  3.25  per  cent.,  the  tendency  was  to- 
ward high-grade  softeners,  with  sulphur  from  0.030  per 
cent,  to  0.050  per  cent.  When  the  furnaces  were  work- 
ing-cold, and  mill  and  mottled  .irons  were  made,  the 
difficulty  was  to  keep  the  sulphur  down.  When  the- 
silicon  fell  to  less  than  1.50  per  cent,  the  sulphur  in- 
creased, and  when  the  silicon  was  below  1  per  cent,  the 
sulphur  was  generally  above  0.10  per  cent. 

This  was  the  situation  in  August,  1895,  when  it  was1- 
asked  if  large  orders  for  basic  iron  could  be  taken  under 
the  following  specifications:  Maximum  silicon,  1.0  per 
cent ;  maximum  sulphur,  0.050  per  cent;  maximum  phos- 
phorus, 1  per  cent,  in  a  few  cases,  0.85  per  cent,  in  some,, 
and  0.75  per  cent,  in  most  cases. 

After  careful  consideration  the  orders  were  taken,  and 
during  the  last  thirteen  months  (September,  1895,  ta 
September,  1896,  inclusive) ,  every  cast  has  been  ana- 
lysed for  silicon,  sulphur  and  phosphorus;  very  large 
shipments  have  been  made,  and  not  a  single  carload  has 
been  rejected.  Considering  the  nature  of  the  ores  used.. 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  315 

the  irregularity  of  the  stock,  and  the  inevitable  mishaps 
attendant  on  the  prosecution  of  a  new  business,  the  suc- 
cess attained  was  certainly  remarkable.  Excluding  the 
relatively  small  percentage  of  costs  that  showed  either 
too  much  silicon  or  too  much  sulphur,  the  average  sili- 
con, sulphur  and  phosphorus  in  1188  casts  was  as  fol- 
lows :  Silicon,  0.51  per  cent;  sulphur,  0.032  per  cent; 
and  phosphorus,  0.72  per  cent.  Of  manganese  the 
metal  carried  about  0.50  per  cent.,  graphitic  carbon  2.75 
to  3  per  cent,  and  combined  carbon  0.60  to  0.80  per 
cent. 

Ore. 

The  ore  used  was  of  three  kinds,  no  single  one  being 
used  exclusively,  and  for  the  most  part  the  three  to- 
gether, viz  :  hard  or  limy  ore,  soft  or  lime-free  ore  — 
these  two  being  hematites,  —  and  brown  ore,  or  limonite. 

Hard,  or  Limy  'Ore. 

This  is  the  red  fossiliferous  hematite  of  the  Clinton 
formation,  occurs  in  large  quantities,  and  is  mined  at 
distances  varying  from  3  to  12  miles  from  Birmingham. 
It  is  the  soft  ore  under  cover,  and  is  taken  from  the 
same  general  workings. 

It  carries  in  its  best  estate  — 


Moisture  .........................  0.50 

Metallic  iron  ..................  ...  37.00 

Silica  .............................  13.44 

Lime  .............................  16.20 

Alumina  .........................  3.18 

Phosphorus.  .  .....................  0.37 

Sulphur  ..........................  0.07 

Carbonic  acid.,                                     ,  12.24 


316        GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

In  places  it  carries  5  per  cent,  more  of  lime  than  is 
here  given,  with  less  iron.  For  the  most  part  it  carries 
enough  lime  to  flux  its  own  silica,  although  occasionally 
there  is  a  deficiency  of  lime.  If  it  were  always  self- 
fluxing  it  would  be  of  greater  value,  but  even  when  the 
silica  is  in  excess  of  the  lime  there  is  required  much 
less  extra  flux,  in  the  shape  of  limestone  or  dolomite, 
than  when  soft  ore  or  brown  ore  is  used. 

It  is  necessary  to  keep  a  close  watch  over  the  hard 
ore,  even  from  the  same  mine,  on  account  of  the  lime- 
silica  ratio  and  the  decrease  of  the  iron  with  the  in- 
crease of  the  lime,  or  the  silica. 

Some  hard  ores  carry  from  3  per  cent,  to  6  per  cent, 
more  lime  than  silica  and  alumina,  and  in  some  the  re- 
verse is  true,  and  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  composi- 
tion in  order  to  proportion  the  amount  of  extra  flux  re- 
quired. Some  furnaces  in  the  district  not,  however, 
making  a  specialty  of  basic  iron,  use  no  extra  flux  at 
all,  the  lime  of  the  hard  ore  being  sufficient  to  flux  not 
only  the  acid  constituents  of  the  ore  burden  but  those  of 
the  coke  also.  In  such  cases,  of  course,  the  lime  in  the 
ore  is  in  considerable  excess  of  the  silica  iu  the  ore. 

The  desiliconizing  and  desulphurizing  action  main- 
tained in  the  blast  furnace  depends  upon  the  basicity  of 
the  slag,  and  this,  in  turn,  conditions  the  fusibility  of 
the  slag.  The  action  of  the  basic  slag  in  the  furnace 
upon  the  iron  that  trickles  down  through  it  may  be 
compared  to  certain  desiiiconizing  and  desulphurizing 
processes  for  the  treatment  of  pig  iron  on  its  way  from 
the  blast  furnace  to  the  steel  furnace.  Instead  of  pour- 
ing molten  pig  iron,  whether  taken  direct  from  the 
furnace,  or  remelted,  through  a  bath  of  basic 
material,  and  removing  the  silicon  and  sulphur  in  this 
manner,  the  process  is  carried  on  in  the  blast  furnace 
itself,  and  there  is  no  longer  a  necessity  for  an  interme- 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  317 

diate  process,  whether  desiliconizing  or  desulphurizing. 
We  do  not  speak  of  the  improvement  in  the  iron  due  to 
the  substitution  of  cast-iron  moulds  for  sand  moulds, 
but  only  of  essential  changes  in  the  body  of  the  iron 
due  to  the  elimination  of  certain  impurities.  It  is  in 
respect  of  the  basicity  of  the  slag  that  the  intelligent 
use  of  hard  ore  becomes  so  important.  The  better 
grades  of  this  ore  are  excellent  in  one  respect,  they  con- 
tain the  flux  in  a  state  of  perfect  .admixture  with  the 
material  to  be  fluxed.  No  artificial  mixture  of  lime  and 
oxide  of  iron,  with  such  impurities  as  are  always  pres- 
ent, could  be  any  better  than,  if  indeed  so  good  as,  the 
ore  which  nature  has  prepared.  It  is  doubtful,  if  in  the 
entire  range  of  ores,  there  is  one  better  adapted  natu- 
lally  for  the  manufacture  of  basic  iron  than  the  better 
grades  of  the  limy  ore  of  the  Clinton  formation. 

The  Soft,  or  Lime- free  Ore. 

An  average  analysis  of  this  ore,  as  used  for  basic  iron, 
is  as  follows  : 


Moisture 7 .00 

Metallic  iron 47.24 

Silica 17.20 

Lime 1.12 

Alumina 3 .35 

Phosphorus 0.30 

Sulphur : 0.06 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  coke  iron  madv3  in  Ala- 
bama has  been  produced  from  ore  mixtures  carrying 
large  proportions  of  soft  ore.  There  was  a  time,  10  to 
12  years  ago,  when  but  little  limy  ore  was  used,  its  value 
not  having  been  recognized,  .and  once  when  it  was 
struck,  in  sinking  a  slope  on  the  soft  ore  the  mine  oper- 


318          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

rators  were  disposed  to  abandon  the  property,  thinking 
that  the  ore  had  given  out. 

The  cheapness  of  the  soft  ore,  10  to  20  cents  a  ton  less 
than  the  limy  ore,  and  the  fact  of  its  carrying  from  10 
to  15  per  cent,  more  iron,  caused  its  general  employ- 
ment. It  is  quarried  rather  than  mined,  as  nearly  all 
of  the  workings  are  in  open  cut  by  the  bench  system. 
At  some  places  regular  mining  operations  are  conducted 
underground,  the  soft  ore,  as  indeed  is  always  the 
case  with  the  limy  ore,  being  won  by  drift,  slope,  pillar, 
and  room .  But  the  quantity  of  soft  ore  obtained  under 
cover  is  trifling  compared  with  what  is  in  effect  quar- 
ried in  the  open  air.  The  seams  vary  in  thickness  from 
4  to  20  feet,  the  thinner  seams  being  worked  only  when 
the  iron  is  above  50  per  cent.  The  present  practice  is 
to  remove  the  overburden  of  soil,  slate,  sandstone  and 
thin  seams  of  ore,  that  is,  from  10  feet  to  30  feet,  and  to 
mine  such  ore  as  is  suitable.  The  Big,  or  Ishkooda 
seam  is  about  20  feet  thick,  and  the  upper  10  feet  car- 
ries about  47  per  cent,  of  iron.  Below  this  10  feet  mark 
the  searn  loses  in  iron  at  the  rate  of  about  one-half  per  cent, 
per  foot,  and  the  silica  increases  rapidly,  although  there 
is  no  regular  rule  governing  all  localities.  But  it  has 
not  been  found  advisable  to  mine  more  than  the  upper 
10  feet.  Under  cover  the  scft  ore  gradually  changes 
into  the  hard,  or  limy  ore,  and  when  the  plane  of  atmos- 
pheric decomposition  is  passed,  which  is  at  distances 
along  tliD  dip  varying  from  a  few  feet  to  300  feet  from 
the  outcrop  the  entire  seam  is  limy.  The  soft  ore  may, 
therefore,  be  regarded  as  the  upper  part  of  the  hard 
ore  from  which  the  lime  has  been  leached  out. 

'From  the  very  complete  records  at  disposal  it  must  be 
said  that  the  best  results  in  the  production  of  basic  iron 
have  been  attained  by  the  use  of  the  trinity  of  ores — 
hard,  soft  and  brown,  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  pro- 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  319 

duce  it  from  hard  ore  exclusively,  on  a  regular  commer- 
cial scale,  or  from>hard  and  brown,  or  from  soft  and 
brown.  There  are  results  from  the  use  of  hard,  soft  and 
brown,  and  from  hard  ore  and  soft  ore,  with  no  brown. 
There  is  but  little  good  in  discussing  the  adaptability  of 
brown  ore  alone  from  this  purpose,  as  it  is  already 
known  to  be  suitable,  as  also  that  the  cost  of  production 
would  tte  considerably  higher,  even  if  brown  ore  could 
be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities. 

The  best  practice  will,  therefore,  be  to  continue  the 
use  of  the  three  ores  already  tried,  while  striving  to  in- 
crease the  proportion  of  limy  ore. 

The  low  cost  of  basic  iron  in  the  Birmingham  district 
is  certainly  a  strong  argument  for  its  production  here. 
•So  long  as  ore  suitable  for  producing  this  kind  of  iron 
can  be  laid  down  in  the  stockhouse  for  1-J-  to  2-J-  cents  per 
unit  of  iron,  the  manufacture  of  basic  iron  mav  be  com- 
mercially profitable.  Whether  the  manufacture  of 
basic  steel  will  follow  upon  the  manufacture  of  basic 
iron  is  another  question. 

BROWN  ORE,  OR  LIMONITE. 

An  average  analysis  of  the  brown  ore  used  in  the  pro- 
duction of  basic  iron  is  as  follows  : 

Per  cent. 

Hygroscopic  water 7.00 

Combined  water 6.00 

Metallic  iron 48.54 

Silica 11.22 

Lime 0 .84 

Alumina 3 .61 

Phosphorus 0.38 

Surphur 0.09 


320         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

If  carefully  mined  and  washed  the  brown  ore  is  of 
fairly  uniform  composition .  No  calcined  brown  ore  has- 
been  used  in  the  production  of  basic  iron.  Some  good 
basic  iron  was  made  in  1892-93  from  brown  ore  exclu- 
sively, but  of  late  it  has  been  used  to  the  extent  of  about 
20  per  cent.  only. 

Good  basic  iron  has  been  and  can  be  made  without 
using  brown  ore,  but  if  it  be  omitted  there  is  an  increas- 
ed risk  of  an  excess  of  both  silicon  and  sulphur.  For 
instance,  it  was  found  that  the  best  results  were  ob- 
tained by  using  an  ore  burden  containing  20  per  cent, 
of  brown  ore,  irrespective  of  the  percentages  of  hard  and 
soft  ore,  which  may  vary  within  wide  limits.  So  far  as 
concerns  the  ore  burdens  the  records  cover  a  consider- 
able range,  from  36.10  per  cent  hard,  42.0  per  cent.  softr 
and  21.3  per  cent,  brown,  to  64  per  cent,  hard,  36  per 
cent,  soft,  and  no  brown.  Of  30,222  tons  of  iron  spec- 
cially  examined  with  reference  to  the  ore  burdens  on 
w^hich  it  was  made,  the  brown  ore  showed  the  following 
percentages,  viz  :  0  ;  8.9  ;  10.6  ;  14.5  ;  19.1 ;  20.0  ;  20.1 ; 
20.3  ;  21.1 ;  and  21.3.  When  running  exclusively  on  hard 
and  soft  ore  the  average  silicon  was  0.68  per  cent.,  the  av- 
erage sulphur  0.043  per  cent.,  and  the  average  phos- 
phorus 0.70  per  cent.  With  an  ore  burden  of  52.3  per 
cent,  hard,  27.5  per  cent,  soft,  and  20.3  per  cent,  brown 
ths  average  silicon  was  0.47  per  cent.,  the  average  sul- 
phur 0.033  per  cent.,  the  phosphorus  remaining  the 
same. 

Important  as  are  these  differences  between  the  silicon 
and  the  sulphur,  they  become  even  more  so  when  it  is 
stated  that  the  chances  of  exceeding  the  1  per  cent,  of 
silicon  with  an  ore  burden  containing  no  brown  ore  are 
nearly  four  times  greater  than  when  20  per  cent  of  brown 
ore  is  used,  and  the  chances  of  exceeding  0.050  per  cent. 


BASIC  STEKL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  S2T 

sulphur  are  more  than  twice  as  great.  Furthermore^ 
the  range  of  both  silicon  and  sulphur  is  wider  when 
brown  ore  is  omitted  than  when  20  per  cent,  of  it  is 
used.  Lastly,  the  average  consumption  of  coke  per  ton 
of  iron  with  no  brown  ore  was  1.53  tons,  and  with  20* 
per  cent,  of  brown  ore  it  was  1.19  tons. 

The  saving  of  flux  with  increase  of  hard  ore  is  a  par- 
tial offset  to  the  advantages  arising  from  the  admixture 
of  brown  ore,  but  after  deducting  this  the  balance  is  de- 
cidedly in  favor  of  the  use  of  brown  ore. 

THE  FLUXES. 

The  basic  iron  of  1892-93  was  made  with  limestone  as 
flux,  but  during  the  last  12  months  dolomite  has  been 
exclusively  employed  in  the  production  of  the  best 
quality  of  basic  iron,  The  experience  of  the  last  year 
was  not  favorable  to  the  use  of  limestone.  The  basic  iron 
fell  off  in  quality,  and  varied  widely  in  composition,  when 
limestone  was  used.  It  carried  4  per  cent,  of  silica  and 
53  per  cent  of  lime,  with  0.40  per  cent  of  oxide  of  iron 
and  0.60  per  cent,  of  alumina,  on  the  average,  but  var- 
ied widely  in  composition. 

The  dolomite  that  was  used  had  the  following  average 
composition  : 

Per  cent. 

Silica 1.50 

Oxide  of  iron 0.60 

Alumina, 0.40 

Carbonate  of  line 54.00     Lime 30.31 

Carbonate  of  magnesia. 43 .00     Magnesia. 20.71 

The  value  of   magnesia  as  a  desiliconizer    and    desul- 
phurizer  in  the  blast  furnace  is    still    somewhat  in    dis- 
pute, but  the  experience  with  dolomite  here  has  proved, 
beyond  question,  that  it  can  be  used  with  great    advan- 
21 


322  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

tage.  Dolomite  has  to  a  large  extent  supplanted  lime- 
stone in  the  Birmingham  district  within  the  last  year  as 
a  flux  on  ordinary  grades  of  iron,  and  is  exclusively 
used  on  basic  iron.  The  amount  of  dolomite  used,  per 
ton  of  iron,  varies,  of  course,  with  the  amount  of  hard 
limy  ore  used.  For  basic  iron  the  variation  was  from 
0.12  ton  with  81.2  per  cent,  limy  ore  and  38.8  per  cent, 
soft  ore  to  1.08  tons  with  36.2  per  cent,  limy  ore,  53.2 
percent,  soft,  and  10.6  percent,  brown  ore.  In  pounds, 
per  ton  of  iron,  the  variation,  then,  was  from  260.8  to 
2419.2,  certainly  a  wide  range,  and  one  that  shows  the 
fluxing  power  of  the  limy  ore  to  great  advantage. 

When  268.8  Ibs.  were  used  the  consumption  of  other 
ingredients,  per  ton  of  iron,  was  2.64  tons  of  ore  and 
1.55  tons  of  coke,  and  the  make  of  iron,  under  these  con- 
ditions was  520  tons.  When  2419.2  Ibs.  were  used  the 
consumption  of  other  materials,  per  ton  of  iron,  was  2.25 
tons  of  ore,  and  1.32  tons  of  coke,  the  make  of  iron  be- 
ing 2068  tons. 

In  making  7424  tons  of  basic  iron  the  consumption  in 
tons  per  ton  of  iron  was  : 

Ore 2.10 

Dolomite 0.92 

Coke 1.23 

The  ore  burden  being  composed,  in  percent,  as  follows  : 

Limy  ore 36.1 

Soft  ore 42.6 

BrowTn  ore . 21.3 

And  the  total  burden 

Limy  ore 17.8 

Soft  ore  .  ..21.0 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  323 

Brown  ore .  • 10.5 

Dolomite '22.0 

Coke .28.7 

This  matter  will  be  discussed  more  fully  under  the 
heading  'Furnace  Burdens.' 

FUEL. 

All  of  the  basic  iron  is  coke  iron,  the  coke  used  being 
the  ordinary  48  hour  ' 'bee-hive,"  made  from  washed 
slack-coal.  The  average  analysis  is  as  follows  : 

Coke.  Ash  of  Coke. 

Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

Moisture 0.75     Silica 45.10 

Volatile  matter 0.75     Oxide  of  iron.  .  .  .  .12.32 

Fixed  Carbon.  . 89.00     Alumina 31.60 

Ash..  .    9.50     Lime.  .  1.50 


100.00     Magnesia trace. 

Sulphur 1.00     Sulphur 0.10 

Phosphorus 0.02 

The  ultimate  strength  of  the  coke  is  about  2000  Ibs. 
for  a  1-inch  cube,  and  the  compressive  strain  about  500 
Ibs.  The  apparent  specific  gravity  is  0.89,  the  true 
specific  gravity  1.80,  the  percentage  of  cells  by  volume 
is  about  45,  and  the  volume  of  the  cells  in  100  parts  by 
weight  is  about  47.  In  structure  the  coke  is  generally 
fine  grained  and  close,  and  breaks  into  lumps  rather 
than  fingers.  It  is  a  small  celled  coke  with  strong  walls, 
and  carries  a  good  burden,  1  Ib.  carrying  as  much  as 
2.54  Ibs.  The  consumption  of  coke,  in  tons  per  ton  of 
iron,  varies  from  1.56  when  using 64. 6  per  cent,  limy 
ore,  35. 4  percent,  soft,  and  no  brown  to  1.05  when  using 
60  per  cent,  limy  ore,  20  per  cent,  soft,  and  20  per  cents. 


324         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

brown,  the  respective  returns    being  based  on  1221  and' 
2984  tons  of  iron. 

It  is  much  better  to  state  the  matter  in  this  way  thanj 
to  give  the  average  over  a  long  period  during  which  the 
burden  is  changing  constantly. 

When  no  brown  ore  is  used  the  consumption  of  coke 
is  high.  For  instance  with  64%  limy  ore  and  36%  soft,, 
the  make  was  3521  tons,  and  the  consumption  of  coke» 
per  ton  of  iron,  was  1.52  tons.  With  81.2  per  cent,  limy 
ore,  and  18.8  per  cent,  soft,  the  make  was  520  tons,  and 
the  consumption  of  coke  1.55  tons. 

With  64.6  per  cent,  limy  ore,  26.5  per  cent,  soft,  and! 
8.9  per  cent,  brown  the  make  was  1140  tons,  and  the 
consumption  of  coke  1.24  tons.  Lastly,  with  36.1  per 
cent,  limy  ore,  42.6  per  cent,  soft,  and  21.3  per  cent, 
brown,  the  make  was  7424  tons,  and  the  consumption  of 
coke  1.23  tons.  Per  pound  of  iron,  then,  the  consump- 
tion of  coke  varies,  according  to  the  burden,  from  1.36- 
Ibs.  down  to  1.18  Ibs. 

Many  other  instances  could  be  given  but  these  are 
sufficient  for  the  present  purpose. 

Coke  of  the  kind  described  above  can  be  secured  here- 
in large  and  regular  shipments.  During  the  last  few 
years  great  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  Birm- 
ingham district  in  the  manufacture  of  coke,  especially 
in  utilizing  slack-coal  and  the  best  coke  now  made  here 
will  compare  favorably  with  the  best  coke  made  any 
where  else  in  the  United  States,  as  has  been  abundantly 
substantiated  not  only  by  chemical  and  physical  tests, 
but  also  and  particularly  by  furnace  records.  As  re- 
gards basic  iron  there  are  records  of  the  production  of 
more  than  22,000  tons  showing  the  average  consumption 
of  coke,  per  ton  of  iron,  as  1.26  tons.  Considering  the 
physical  and  chemical  irregularities  of  the  ore,  points 
which  have  always  to  be  borne  in  mind  when  discussing 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  325 

rthe  blast  furnace  practice  in  the  Birmingham  district  it 
is  a  good  result  to  obtain  a  pound  of  iron  with  1.18  Ibs. 
<of  coke. 

FURNACE  BURDENS. 

Let  us  now  examine  some  what  closely  the  furnace  bur- 
dens, and  their  effect  upon  the  quality  of  the  iron,  It 
is,  of  course,  understood  that  these  are  only  one  of  the 
elements  entering  into  the  subject.  The  physical  and 
chemical  condition  of  the  stock,  the  amount,  pressure 
and  heat  of  the  blast,  the  rate  of  driving,  etc.,  all  in- 
fluence the  quality  of  the  iron.  But  as  this  paper  deals 
chiefly  with  the  raw  materials  used  here  in  making  basic 
iron,  and  designed  to  show  when  success  has  been  reached 
in  using  local  supplies  of  ore,  stone  and  coke,  we  may 
be  excused  from  enlarging  upon  the  furnace  practice. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  furnace  producing  the  basic 
iron  under  consideration  has  the  following  proportions. 

Cubic  area 11,865  ft. 

Height 80  ft. 

Diameter  at  bosh 17i  ft. 

Diameter  at  crucible 11    ft. 

Stock  line  . . 14i  ft. 

Bosh  angle 81-J-  deg. 

Three  blowing  engines,  having  each  36  revolutions  per 
minute  ;  eight  6-in.  tuyeres  ;  pressure  of  the  blast  11  Ibs ; 
temperature  1400  deg.  F. ;  amount  of  blast  per  minute, 
25,000  cubic  feet.  This  furnace  has  produced  164  tons 
of  basic  iron  in  24  hours,  or  31  Ibs.  of  iron  per  cubic 
foot  of  area,  the  average  production  being  somewhat 
less  than  this. 

The  following  tables  give  the  results  of  the  examina- 
tion of  the  conditions  attending  the  production  of  30,222 
tons  of  basic  iron  made  during  the  year  ending  Septem- 
9th,  1896.  More  than  twice  as  much  was  made,  but  the 


326          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

examples  selected  are  in  no  wise  exceptional,  being  chos- 
en for  the  sole  purpose  of  exhibiting  certain  types  of 
furnace  burdens.  Every  cast  during  the  year  was  anal- 
ysed for  silicon,  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  and  many  also 
for  manganese  and  the  two  carbons.  For  the  first  time 
in  the  history  of  iron-making  in  Alabama,  a  critical  ex- 
amination of  every  cast  of  iron  was  insisted  upon  and 
faithfully  carried  out. 

The  total  number  of  days  represented  in  the   tables  is 
195  ;  of  charges,  14,309,  and  the  tons  of  iron,  30,222. 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON! 


327 


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GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 


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TABLE  XLVIII. 

Burdens  of  Limy  (Hard)  Ore,  So 
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BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  329 

These  tables  fairly  represent  the  conditions,  as  to  ore, 
^dolomite  and  coke,  that  were  maintained  during  the 
production  of  more  than  75.000  tons  of  basic  iron  in  the 
Birmingham  district.  What  may  be  legitimately  in- 
ferred from  these  results?  In  the  first  place  and  prin- 
cipally that  basic  iron  of  excellent  quality  has  been 
made  here  of  native  materials  and  in  large  quantities. 
Secondly,  that  the  choice  of  these  materials  and  the 
proportions  in  which  they  Ere  used  are  of  great  impor- 
tance in  controlling  the  nature  of  the  product. 

What  constitutes  good  basic  iron?  So  much  depends 
•on  local  requirements,  and  the  purpose  for  which  the 
iron  is  to  be  used,  i.  e.,  whether  in  admixture  with 
other  iron,  or  by  itself,  that  no  reply  applicable  to  all 
cases  can  be  made.  As  a  rule,  however,  maximum  lim- 
its can  be  assigned  to  silicon,  sulphur  and  phosphorus, 
which  should  not  be  exceeded  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances. It  is  not  customary  to  include  in  the  specifica- 
tions the  percentages  of  manganese,  graphitic  carbon, 
•or  combined  carbon,  but  to  limit  the  demands  to  silicon, 
sulphur  and  phosphorus.  Probably  there  are  but  few  if 
any  basic  open-hearth  steel  makers  who  would  purchase 
stock  carrying  more  than  1  per  cent,  of  silicon,  or  more 
than  0.050  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  although  they  might 
•concede  a  little  as  to  silicon  if  the  iron  was  to  be  used 
in  connection  with  other  stock  low  in  silicon.  The 
limit  for  silicon  has  to  be  set  somewhere,  and  at  1  per 
^cent.  it  is  certainly  low  enough,  and  works  no  hardship 
to  the  producer.  If  it  can  be  brought  still  lower  so 
much  the  better 

If  the  producer  of  the  iron  were  also  the  maker  of 
the  steel  he  could  not  afford  to  use  pig  iron  of  more  than 
1  per  cent,  silicon,  unless  he  enjoyed  exceptional  oppor- 
tunities for  acquiring  wrought  iron  and  steel  scrap.  By 
stacking  the  iron  above  1  per  cent,  in  silicon,  he  could 


330         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 

use  it  in  mixture  with  his  very  low  silicon  iron,  of  which 
he  would  probably  make  a  great  deal  more  than  of  the 
other.  Putting  the  maximum  silicon  at  1  per  cent., 
there  are  a  greater  or  a  lesser  number  of  casts,  depend- 
ing largely  upon  the  condition  of  the  furnace  and  the 
skill  of  the  furnace-man,  that  will  exceed  this  figure. 
These  casts  can  not  be  shipped  under  the  contract,  but 
could  be  used  on  the  spot.  An  iron  with  even  1.10  per 
cent,  of  silicon  can  not  be  shipped  under  a  contract  lim- 
iting the  silicon  to  1.0  per  cent.,  but  if  used  at  home 
could  be  mixed  with  iron  carrying  0.40  per  cent.,  or  0.60 
per  cent.,  for  steel  making. 

It  is  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  pig  iron  producer 
to  keep  well  within  the  limits  of  the  specifications,  so 
as  to  allow  for  unavoidable  irregularities  in  the  working 
of  the  furnace.  His  purpose  should  be  to  keep  the  sili- 
con below  0.75  per  cent.  This  is  good  practice  if  he  is 
selling  his  product  on  analysis,  and  especially  so  if  he 
is  making  steel  himself,  as  the  lower  the  silicon  is  kept 
the  better  can  he  use  the  iron  that  exceeds  the  limit. 

The  silicon  is  not  so  apt  to  cause  trouble  as  the  sul- 
phur. Fewer  casts  show  a  tendency  toward  increase  of 
silicon  than  toward  increase  of  sulphur,  and  under 
nearly  all  circumstances  the  silicon  is  more  easily  con- 
trolled than  the  sulphur.  When  the  silicon  falls  the 
sulphur  is  apt  to  rise,  but  this  tendency  does  not  become 
serious  until  the  silicon  is  below  0.30  per  cent. 

The  burden  that  shows  the  greatest  tendency  toward 
increase  of  silicon  is  No.  4,  which  carries  the  largest 
proportion  of  limy  ore,  and  no  brown  ore.  This  burden 
also  gave  the  highest  sulphur.  The  average  silicon  on 
this  burden  was  0.87  per  cent.,  and  the  average  sulphur 
0.047  per  cent.  The  charges  on  this  burden  were  com- 
posed of  9300  pounds  of  limy  ore,  2100  pounds  of  soft 
ore,  1000  pounds  of  dolomite,  and  6500  pounds  of  coke. 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  331 

Taking  the  analysis  as  given,  we  find  that  there  were 
in  each  charge  the  following  amounts  of  lime  and  mag- 
nesia :  In  the  limy  ore,  1506.6  pounds  of  lime;  in  the 
soft  ore,  23.52  pounds  ;  in  the  coke,  6.50  pounds  ;  in  the 
dolomite,  303.1  pounds  of  lime  and  207.1  pounds  of 
magnesia;  a  total  of  2046.82  pounds  of  flux,  of  which 
1839.72  pounds,  or  89.9  per  cent.,  was  lime.  Calculating 
the  silica  in  the  same  manner,  we  find  it  to  be  in  the 
limy  ore,  1249.92  pounds  ;  in  the  soft  ore,  361.20  pounds  ; 
in  the  coke,  293.15  pounds,  and  in  the  dolomite  15 
pounds;  a  total  of  1919.27  pounds.  Taking  1  part  of 
magnesia  as  equal  in  fluxing  power  to  1.19  parts  of  lime, 
we  may  say  that  the  207.1  pounds  of  magnesia  in  the 
dolomite  are  equivalent  to  246.44  pounds  of  lime,  so 
that  the  lime-flux  would  be  2086.16  pounds.  The  silica 
to  be  fluxed  is  1919.27  pounds,  so  that  there  is  an  ex- 
cess of  166.89  pounds  of  lime  per  charge  above  the  ratio 
silica  :  lime=l  :1. 

During  the  period  under  examination  there  were  279 
charges,  with  a  production  of  520  tons  of  iron,  or  1.86 
tons  per  charge.  The  excess  of  lime  is  practically  167 
pounds  per  charge,  so  that  the  520  tons  of  iron  were  ex- 
posed to  the  desiliconizing  and  desulphurizing  action 
not  only  of  the  cinder  but  also  of  46,593  pounds  of  lime 
not  required  for  fluxing  the  silica.  Each  ton  of  iron 
was  'washed'  with  89  pounds  of  lime.  In  spite  of  this, 
however,  the  tendency  of  the  iron  was  decidedly  toward 
an  increase  of  both  silicon  and  sulphur,  and  the  burden 
was  changed. 

So  much  for  No.  4.  Let  us  now  examine  the  results 
from  a  burden  of  exactly  opposite  tendency,  the  iron  be- 
ing of  particularly  good  [quality.  We  will  select  No. 
12.  The  charges  under  this  burden  were  composed  as 
follows  : 


332         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  of  ALABAMA. 

Pounds. 

Limy  ore 3,500 

Soft  ore 4,000 

Brown  ore 2,000 

Dolomite 4,500 

Coke 5,500 

The  ore  burden  and  the  total  burden  were,  as  per 
ventages : 

Ore  Total 

burden.  burden. 

Limy  ore 36.7  17.9 

Soft  ore 42.2  20.5 

Brown  ore 21.1  10.2 

Dolomite 23.1 

Coke 28.3 

The  number  of  charges  was  386,  and  the  iron  made 
was  781  tons,  or  2.02  tons  per  charge. 

Lime  per         Silica  per 

charge,  Ibs.  charge,  Ibs. 

From  limy  ore 567.0  470.40 

"      soft  ore 44.8  688.00 

"      brown  ore 16.8  224.40 

"      dolomite 1,472.5  67.50 

. "      coke 5.5  248.05 

2,106.6          1,698.35 

We  have  then  2,408.3  pounds  of  lime  in  excess  of 
that  required  for  slagging  the  silica  under  the  ratio 
silica  :lime=l  :1.  In  other  words,  the  781  tons  of  iron 
were  subjected  to  a  bath  of  543,603  pounds  of  lime,  and 
every  ton  of  iron  was  "washed' '  with  694  pounds  of  lime. 
The  result  was  that  the  highest  silicon  found  was  0.63 
per  cent,  and  the  lowest  0.27  per  cent.,  the  average  being 
0.46  per  cent.  Contrast  these  results  with  those  from 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON. 

No.  4,  in  which  the  silicon  went  to  0.94  per  cent.,  the 
lowest  being  0.74  per  cent.,  and  the  average  0.87  per 
cent.  The  lowest  silicon  in  No.  4  is  higher  than  the 
highest  in  No.  12,  while  the  average  silicon  in  No.  4  is 
nearly  twice  as  much  as  the  average  in  No.  12.  The  dif- 
ference in  the  sulphur  is  also  remarkable.  In  No.  4  the 
highest  average  sulphur  was  0.056  per  cent.,  the  lowest 
0.042  per  cent.,  and  the  general  average  0.047.  In  No, 
12  the  highest  average  sulphur  was  0.037  per  cent.,  the 
lowest  0.021  per  cent.,  and  the  general  average  0.028  per 
cent.  Here  also  the  highest  average  sulphur  in  No.  12 
is  lower  than  the  lowest  in  No.  4,  and  the  general  aver- 
age in  No.  4  is  1.7  times  as  much  as  in  No.  12. 

Basic  iron  carrying  a  maximum  silicon  of  0.63  per 
cent,  and  a  highest  average  sulphur  of  0.037  per  cent,  is 
certainly  very  good  stock  for  the  basic  open-hearth  steel 
furnace. 

But  even  in  No.  12  the  sulphur  at  times  exceeded  the 
limit  of  0.050  per  cent.,  5  per  cent,  of  the  casts  being 
above  this,  with  the  highest  sulphur  0.063  per  cent.,  the 
lowest  0.012  per  cent.,  and  the  average  0.027  per  cent. 
The  expression  highest  average  sulphur  has  been  used. 
It  means  not  the  highest  sulphur  found,  but  the  highest 
found  by  adding  the  sulphurs  of  each  cast  and  dividing 
the  sum  by  the  total  number  of  casts.  •  For  instance,  in 
No.  12  the  table  shows  the  highest  sulphur  to  have  been 
0.037  per  cent.,  but  this  itself  is  an  average  of  all  the 
No.  2  casts  of  that  series.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  5  per 
cent,  of  the  casts  under  No.  12  carried  over  0.050  per 
cent,  of  the  sulphur,  but  even  then  the  results  were  a 
great  deal  better  than  with  No.  4. 

There  are  records  covering  the  production  of  1 1 ,379 
tons  of  basic  iron  in  which  the  maximum  silicon  was 
0.98  per  cent.,  and  the  average  0.48  per  cent.,  not  a 
single  cast  being  up  to  the  Unfit  and  only  a  very  few  any- 


334         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

where  near  it.     Of  the  264  casts  examined  during  this 

O 

period  only  15,  or  5.7  per  cent,  ran  over  0.050  per  cent, 
sulphur,  and  then  the  maximum  was  0.065  per  cent,  and 
the  average  0.031  per  cent. 

Two  more  illustrations  will  be  given,  one  in  which  no 
brown  ore  was   used,  corresponding   in   this  respect  to 
No.  4,   and  the  other    with    brown   ore,    corresponding 
similarly  to  No.  12. 
No.  1  burden  : 

Ore  burden.     Total  burden. 
Per  cent.         Per  cent. 

Limy  ore 64.00  33.1 

Soft  ore 36.00  18.6 

Dolomite 14.5 

Coke 33.8 

Total  burden  in  pounds  : 

Limy  ore 6,400 

Soft  ore 3,600 

Dolomite 2,800 

Coke 6,500 

Number  of  charges,  1,818.     Iron  made,  3,521  tons. 

Lime  of  Silica  of 

burden,  Ibs.  burden,  Ibs. 

From  limy  ore 1,036.80  859.16 

"      soft  ore 40.32  619.20 

"     dolomite 1,538.35  42.00 

11      coke..                                  6.50  293.15 


2,621.97          1,813,51 

In  addition  to  the  lime  required  for  fluxing  the  silica  ev- 
ery ton  of  iron  made  was  washed  with  425  Ibs.  of  lime. 
The  iron  showed  much  less  tendency  toward  high  silicon 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  335 

and  high  sulphur  than  No.  4,  but  a  much  greater    ten- 
dency in  this  direction  than  No.  12. 
Finally,  let  us  consider  No.  6  : 

Ore  burden,  Total  burden, 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Limy  ore 36.2  17.8 

Soft  ore 53.2  26.2 

Brown  ore .    10.6  5.2 

Dolomite 22.0 

Coke 28.8 

Total  burden  in  pounds  : 

Limy  ore 3,400 

Soft  ore , 5,000 

Brown  ore 1,000 

Dolomite 4,200 

Coke 5,500 

Number  of  charges,  1,099.     Iron  made,  2,068  tons. 

Lime  of  Silica  of 

burden,  Ibs.  burden,  Ibs. 

From  limy  ore 550.80  456.96 

11      soft  ore 56.00  860.00 

"      brown  ore 8.40  112.20 

11      dolomite 2,307.90  63.00 

"      coke..                                    5.50  248.05 


2,928.60      1,740.21 

Every  ton  of  iron  was  washed  with  627  Ibs.  of 
lime.  The  iron  was  of  excellent  quality,  the  average 
silicon  being  0.59  %  ,  and  the  average  sulphur  0.028%. 
Not  a  single  cast  exceeded  the  limit  in  silicon,  and  only 
7.1  %  exceeded itfin  sulphur,  the  highest  sulphur  being 
0.65  %. 

To  sum  up  these  four  cases  we  may  say  :  Total  iron 
made,  6,890  tons  from  3,612  charges.  When  the  excess 


336  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 

of  lime  was  89  Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron  the  silicon  and  sul- 
phur both  showed  strong  tendencies  toward  the  maxi- 
mum allowed.  When  the  excess  of  lime  was  425  lbs.r 
no  brown  ore  being  used,  this  tendenty  was  markedly 
diminished.  In  Nos.  1  and  4  no  brown  ore  was  used, 
the  iron  made  was  4,041  tons,  the  excess  of  lime  per 
ton  of  iron  in  No.  1  being  425  Ibs.  and  in  No.  4,  89  Ibs. 
The  quality  of  the  iron  from  No.  4,  with  the  small  ex- 
cess of  lime,  was  much  inferior  to  that  from  No.  1  with 
the  large  excess  of  lime.  In  neither  case  was  it  as  good 
as  that  from  No.  6  and  No.  12,  both  of  which  carried 
brown  ore.  Furthermore,  in  examining  other  cases, 
which  need  not  be  quoted,  we  find  that  when  the  excess- 
of  lime,  with  a  brown  ore  burden,  is  no  more  than  425 
Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron,  the  quality  of  the  iron  is  better  than 
when  this  excess  is  used  with  burdens  containing  no 
brown  ore.  In  other  words,  brown  ore  is  of  a  decided 
advantage  irrespective,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  the  excess 
of  lime.  The  smaller  excess  of  lime,  with  burdens  com- 
posed of  limy  and  soft  ore,  yielded  worse  iron  than  the 
larger  excess  because  the  desiliconizing  and  desulphur- 
izing actions  within  the  furnace  were  not  sufficiently 
powerful,  or  while  powerful  enough,  perhaps,  within 
the  sphere  of  their  active  influence  were  not  distributed 
over  the  entire  mass  of  the  iron.  A  slight  excess  of 
lime  is  not  sufficient,  there  must  be  a  large  excess,  for 
when  it  rises  to  400  Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron  the  results  are 
much  better  than  when  it  is  about  100  Ibs.  per  ton  of 
iron . 

In  the  production  of  basic  iron  it  is  not  sufficient  that 
the  cinder  be  merely  basic ;  it  must  be  basic  enough  to 
exert  a  powerful  desiliconizing  and  desulphurizing 
action,  or  the  results  will  not  be  satisfactory.  This  is 
true  irrespective  of  whether  the  action  within  the  fur- 
nace is  such  as  to  hinder  the  reduction  of  silica,  or  to 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  337 

cause  an  oxidation  of  silicon  already  reduced  from  the 
siliceous  materials  of  the  burden.  It  is  possible  that 
the  former  is  the  cause  most  in  operation,  for  the  highly 
reducing  action  of  the  gases  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
furnace  tends  strongly  toward  preventing  any  consider- 
able oxidation  of  substances  already  deprived  of  their 
oxygen. 

It  is  possible  that  a  very  basic  charge  prevents  the 
reduction  of  silica,  while  at  the  same  time  it  either  pre- 
vents the  absorption  of  sulphur  by  the  iron,  or  removes 
the  sulphur  already  absorbed.  In  the  Saniter  de- 
sulphurizing process  the  sulphur  already  combined  with 
the  iron  is  removed  in  a  bath  of  calcium  chloride.  It  is 
.slagged  off  as  sulphide  of  calcium.  In  the  blast  furnace 
making  basic  iron  the  same  result  is  accomplished  in  a 
different  manner  with  the  attainment  of  practically  the 
same  result. 

Basic  iron  has  been  made  with  less  than  0.20  per  cent, 
of  silicon,  and  less  than  0.020  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  the 
excess  of  lime  per  ton  of  iron  being  close  to  700  Ibs. 
We  have  had  to  depend  upon  the  lime  and  the  magnesia 
as  desulphurizers,  as  the  ores  seldom  carry  more  than 
0.30  per  cent,  of  manganese.  If  the  manganese  ores 
proper,  or  manganiferous  iron  ores  could  be  obtained  at 
a  reasonable  cost  the  basicity  of  the  burden  might  be 
diminished,  provided  such  a  change  did  not  tend  to  in- 
crease the  silicon.  But  the  purpose  was  to  use  the  or- 
dinary materials  of  the  district,  such  as  are  mined  and 
used  every  day,  and  manganese  ore  is  not  among  them. 
Whether  it  would  pay  to  buy  manganese  ore  at  18-20 
cents  per  unit  f.  o.  b.  mines  in  Georgia  is  an  open  ques- 
tion, and  does  not  now  concern  us  much. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  magnesia  has  been    calcu- 
lated as  lime,^the  magnesia  of  the  dolomite  being  stated 
22 


338  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 

in  terms  of  this  base.  It  is  more  convenient  to  adopt 
this  method  for  purposes  of  calculation,  and  when  the 
fluxing  ratio  between  the  two  is  given  no  confusion  can 
take  place.  The  ratio  adopted  is,  as  already  stated  1 
magnesia  =  1.19  lime.  But  irrespective  of  this  ratio  it 
has  been  found  here  that  the  exclusive  use  of  limestone 
as  a  flux  in  making  basic  iron  is  not  advisable.  The 
composition  of  the  iron  is  neither  so  regular  nor  so  good. 
This  is  true  of  limestone  alone,  and  also  of  a  mixture  of 
limestone  &nd  dolomite.  The  available  supply  of  dolo- 
mite is  very  large,  and  no  fears  need  be  entertained  that 
it  will  not  be  sufficient  for  many  years. 

It  will  also  be  noticed  that  no  account  has  been  taken 
of  the  alumina  in  the  ores,  flux  and  fuel.  It  cannot  be 
stated  positively  what  part  alumina  plays  at  such  high 
temperatures,  and  in  the  presence  of  large  excess  of  lime 
and  magnesia.  At  some  temperatures  it  appear  to  re- 
quire silica  for  its  removal,  and  th-a  custom  is  to  add 
.siliceous  soft  ores  to  aluminous  soft  ores  in  the  burden, 
when  using  or^  containing  5  per  cent,  to  7  per  cent,  of 
alumina  for  the  ordinary  grades  of  iron.  Under  such 
circumstances  alumina  is  a  base,  and  requires  an  acid 
flux,  but  it  by  no  means  follows  that  it  is  always  a  base. 
The  exact  role  of  alumina  in  the  blast  furnace  is  a  dis- 
puted question,  and  it  may  be  that  it  is  a  base  or  an  acid 
according  to  circumstances.  Just  what  these  are,  how 
brought  about,  and  how  controlled  is  beyond  the  prov- 
ince of  this  paper.  If  it  be  taken  as  an. acid  the  forego- 
ing calculations  as  to  the  excess  of  base  in  the  burdens 
would  have  to  be  modified  considerably,  the  extent  of 
such  modifications  depending  upon  the  saturation  point 
of  the  alumina  with  respect  to  lime,  magnesia,  and  mag- 
nesia and  lime. 

If  we  take  the  ratio  of  silica  to  alumina,  under  the 
usual  cinder  made,  as  1 :1  (as  a  matter  of  fact  it  seems 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  339 

to  be  1:0.87)  the  excess  of  lime -magnesia  also  calcu- 
lated as  lime — in  No.  4,  of  89  Ibs.  per  ton  of  iron  would 
entirely  disappear,  and  in  place  of  it  we  would  have  336 
Ibs.  of  silica  and  alumina  per  ton  of  iron.  No.  4  bur- 
den would  then  be  acid,  and  it  may  be  that  the  unsatis- 
factory results  from  it  are  to  be  attributed  to  this.  Tak- 
ing the  other  hard — soft  burden,  No.  1,  instead  of  627 
Ibs.  of  excess  of  base  per  tori  of  iron  we  would  have  336 
Ibs.,  and  in  No. 12,  instead  of  694  Ibs.  we  would  have 
425  Ibs.  of  excess  of  base  per  ton  of  iron. 

These  changes  in  the  calculations  do  not  alter  the  fact 
that  a  very  basic  burden  is  required,  for  uniformly  good 
basic  iron.  In  fact,  they  strengthen  this  conclusion,  for 
if  the  silica  and  alumina  taken  together  may  be  regar- 
ded as  the  total  acidity  of  the  burden  it  is  found,  as 
before,  that  as  we  approach  more  and  more  closely  to  a 
neutral  burden  that  quality  of  the  iron  begins  to  deter- 
iorate, and  is  at  its  worst  when  the  line  is  passed  and 
the  burden  becomes  acid.  On  the  other  iiand,  as  we  ap- 
proach the  maximum  basicity,  consistent  with  fluidity 
of  cinder  and  regular  working  of  the  furnace,  the  quality 
of  the  iron  improves,  and  is  at  its  best  when  the  excess 
of  base,  per  ton  of  iron,  is  between  400  and  600  Ibs. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  important  things  in  connection 
with  basic  iron  practice,  for  it  determines  the  efficiency 
of  the  clesiliconizing  and  desulphurizing  action  that  is 
to  accomplished.  The  iron  must  be  subjected  to  a  basic 
bath,  and  the  blast  furnace  is  even  better  than  a  bath, 
for  every  particle  of  iron  must  trickle  through  the  basic 
cinder,  and  be  exposed  on  all  sides  to  its  powerful  act- 
ion, whether  this  be  deterrent,  as  perhaps  is  the  case 
with  the  silicon,  or  positive  as  is  the  case  with  the  sul- 
phur. No  ex'terior  process  for  desiliconizing  or  desul- 
phurizing can  be  more  effectual  than  the  process  within 
the  furnace  itself,  provided  the  proper  conditions  are 


340  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

maintained.  But  it  is  not  enough  that  the  saturatiort 
point  of  the  acid  element  of  the  burden  be  reached  ; 
this  indeed  is  necessary,  but  unless  there  at  the  same 
time  an  excess  of  material  which  (a)  can  prevent  the 
combination  of  silicon  and  sulphur  with  iron,  or  (6)  re- 
move them  after  they  have  entered  the  iron  there  can 
not  be  made  a  regular  and  good  quality  of  basic  iron. 

The  saturation  of  the  acids  and  excess  of  base  must 
go  hand  in  hand.  Whether  the  excess  of  base  prevents 
the  iron  from  absorbing  silicon  and  sulphur,  or  whether , 
after  they  are  once  absorbed,  it  removes  them,  is  of  no 
special  moment.  Perhaps  both  these  actions  go  on  within 
the  furnace,  a  deterrent  action  and  a  removing  action f 
the  one  in  the  cooler  and  the  other  in  the  hotter  zones. 
If  a  furnace  on  basic  iron  is  working  cold  we  might  ex- 
pect to  find  a  decrease  of  silicon,  and  an  increase  of" 
sulphur,  and  the  main  point  in  basic  practice  is  to  keep 
the  furnace  hot  enough  to  lower  the  sulphur  and  cold 
enough  to  lower  the  silicon.  This  is  largely  a  question, 
of  burdening  and  blowing. 

THE    CONSUMPTION    OF    COKE. 

The  consumption  of  coke  is  always  the  most  interest-- 
ing, as,  perhaps,  it  is  the  most  important,  question  in 
the  manufacture  of  iron.  It  is  by  far  the  most  costly 
raw  material,  and  on  this  account  economies  in  its  use 
soon  become  evident.  With  coke  at  $1.75  per  ton,  each 
100  pounds  saved  represents^  saving  of  8.75  cents.  If 
a  furnace  has  been  working  on  2,500  pounds  of  coke  per 
ton  of  iron,  and  can  diminish  this  by  100  Jpounds,  the 
saving  on  150  tons  of  iron  per  day  is  !$13.12,  which 
would  pay  the  wages  of  the  superintendent,  the  master 
mechanic  and  the  chemist,  or  pay  6  per  cent,  interest  on, 
the  cost  of  building  250  coke  ovens. 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  341 

In  the  production  of  basic  iron  the  consumption  of 
-coke  has  varied  from  2441.6  pounds  to  3427  pounds  per 
ton  (2,240  pounds)  of  iron,  the  average  being  2,979 
pounds,  or  1.33  tons  of  2,240  pounds.  The  tons  used 
in  all  these  statements  are  of  2,240  pounds,  so  that  it  is 
easy  to  pass  from  one  to  the  other. 

Taking  the  cost  of  the  coke  as  $1.96  per  ton  the  varia- 
tion in  the  cost  per  ton  of  iron  is  from  $2.13  to  $2.99,  or 
86  cents,  the  average  cost  being  $2.60.  The  lowest  coke 
-consumption  was  on  the  following  burden  : 

Ore  burden.  Total  burden- 
Per  cent.       Per  cent. 

Hard  ore 60.2  35.1 

Softore 19.9  11.7 

Brown  ore 19.9  11.7 

Dolomite 11.9 

Coke 29.6 

There  were  2,033  charges,  and  4,553  tons  of  iron  were 
made,  or  2.24  tons  per  charge.  The  consumption  of 
coke  per  ton  of  iron  was  1.09  tons,  or  2,441.6  pounds. 
There  were  examined  126  casts,  of  which  94,  or  74.6 
per  cent,  gave  silicon  below  1  per  cent.,  and  89,  or  70.6 
per  cent,  gave  sulphur  below  0.050  percent.  The  aver- 
age composition  of  the  iron,  below  these  limits,  was 
silicon,  0.47  per  cent.;  sulphur,  0.030  per  cent.;  phos- 
phrus  0.73  per  cent. 

The  analysis  of  the  stock  was  as  follows  : 

Limy  Ore.  Soft  Ore.  Brown  Ore. 

Iron 36.71  46.54  48.81 

Silica 12.59  19.19  11.00 

Alumina 3.15  3.00  3.25 

Lime 17.14  1.00  0.60 

Phosphorus..   0.35  0.30  0.40 

Sulphur 0.07  0.06  0.09 


342  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Dolomite.  .Ash  of  Coke. 

Silica 1.95  45.10 

Lime 29.10  1.30 

Magnesia 19 .20  trace 

Oxide  of  iron 0.40  12.32 

Alumina 0.60  31.60 

Sulphur 0.03  0.16 

The  coke  contained  11.32  per  cent,  of  ash,  and  0.91 
per  cent,  of  sulphur. 

The  consumption  and  cost  of  raw  materials  per  ton  of 
iron  was  : 

Tons.  Dollars. 

Ore 2.19  1,765 

Dolomite 0.45  0,336 

Coke 1.09  2,429 

3.73  4,530 

The  burden  was  not  the  same  throughout  this  period  f 
but  the  average  charge  was  as  follows,  in  pounds : 

Limy  ore 6,532 

Soft  ore.. 2,276 

Brown  ore 2,276 

Dolomite 2,234 

Coke..  . 5,500 

• 

18,818 

Taking  the  analysis,  as  quoted,  and  considering  the 
silica  and  alumina  as  the  acid  elements,  we  would  have 
of  acid  and  basic  constituents  the  following : 

Acid,  Ibs.     Basic,  Ibs. 

From  the  limy  ore 1,028.13         1,119.58 

"     soft  ore 505.04  22.76 

"     brown  ore 324,33  13.65 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON  .  343 

•  ^  f 

Acid.  Basic. 

"       '«     dolomite 56.96         1,160.34 

"       "     coke 425.68  9.84 

2,340.14         2,325.67 

By  the  method  of  calculation  adopted  this  would  be 
very  nearly  a  neutral  burden.  We  cannot  but  think  that 
the  good  quality  of  iron  was  due  in  great  measure  to  the 
brown  ore,  for  when  this  was  omitted  and  the  ore  burden 
composed  of  limy  ore  and  soft  ore,  the  charge  being 
basic,  there  was  a  noticeable  falling  off  in  grade. 

Let  us  now  consider  a  case  in  which  the  consumption 
of  coke  was  1.53  tons,    or  3,427  pounds  per  ton  of  iron._ 
The  burdens  were  as  follows  : 

Ore  burden.     Total  burden. 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Limy  ore 61.2  31.5 

Soft  ore 34.3  17.6 

Brown  ore 4.5  2.4 

Dolomite ....  15.1 

Coke 33.4 

The  burden  was  not  the  same  during  this  period,   but 
the  average  charge  was  in  pounds  : 

Limy  ore 6,245 

Soft      "    3,314 

Brown  " 512 

Dolomite 2,900 

Coke 6,500 

19,471 

The  number  of  charges  was  2,381,  and  the  iron  made 
4,500  tons,  or  1.89  tons  per  charge.      The  consumption 


344         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 

and  cost  of  materials  per  ton  of  iron  were  : 

Tons.     Dollars.  . 

Ore 2.37         1,643 

Dolomite 0.70         0,219 

Coke 1.53         2,864 

4.60         4,726 

There  was  very  little  difference  in  the  composition  of 
the  materials  during  this  period  and  the  one  just  con- 
sidered, and  they  may  be  taken  as  practically  the  same. 
In  this  latter  case  we  have  them,  as  the  constituents  of 
the  burden  : 


Acid 

Basic 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Prom  the  limy  ore. 
"  "  soft  "  . 

.  .   982.96 
.  .   735.37 

1,070.39 
33.14 

"  '<  Brown  "  . 

..     72.96 

3.07 

.  <l  "  Dolomite. 
"  "  Coke 

.  .     73.95 

498  55 

1,506.26 
97.50 

2,333.79       2,710.36 

There  was  an  excess  of  base  of  376.57  pound's  per 
charge,  so  that  each  ton  of  iron  was  '  washed  '  with  197.12 
pounds  of  lime  base.  There  were  examined  during  this 
perriod  120  casts  of  iron,  of  which  90,  or  75  per  cent., 
gave  silicon  below  1  per  cent.,'  and  sulphur  below  0.050 
per  cent.,  the  average  of  these  90  being  as  follows: 
silicon,  0.64  per  cent. ;  sulphur,  0.031  per  cent. ;  phos- 
phorus, 0.71  per  cent. 

So  far  as  concerns  the  quality  of  the  iron  there  is  not 
much  to  choose  between  the  results  from  1.09  tons  and 
1.53  tons  of  coke  per  ton  of  iron. 

But  the  lower  yield  of  the  best  iron  obtained  from  the 
latter  burden,  viz.,  9.1  per  cent.,  makes  it  less  desirable, 
even  if  the  difference  of  cost  of  19  cents  per  ton  of  iron 
were  not  considered. 


BASIC  STEEL  AND  BASIC  IRON.  345 

As  it  is,  however,  the  burden  carrying  much  less 
brown  ore  and  requiring  much  more  coke  is  handicapped 
with  a  difference  of  19  cents  per  ton  of  iron,  and  a  9.1 
per  cent,  less  yield  of  the  best  iron.  In  considering  the 
matter  further  it  was  found  that  even  with  an  excess  of 
lime-base  in  the  burden  the  yield  of  the  best  iron  was 
9  per  cent,  less  when  the  burden  was  slightly  acid  but 
carried  over  19  per  cent,  of  brown  ore. 

If  now  we  examine  the  table  relating  to  the  use  of 
limy  and  soft  ores  it  will  be  seen  that  with  hard-soft 
burdens  only  17.5  per  cent,  of  the  iron  was  made  with  a 
coke  consumption  as  low  as  1.48  tons  per  ton  of  iron,  the 
.average  being  1.52  tons.  With  burdens  in  which  brown 
ore  formed  a  notable  proportion  only  6  per  cent,  of  the 
iron  was  made  with  a  coke  consumption  as  high  as  1.48 
tons  per  ton  of  iron,  the  average  being  1.24. 

As  a  rule,  brown  ore  burdens  will  require  6t)0  pounds 
less  of  coke  per  ton  of  iron  than  burdens  carrying  no 
brown  ore. 

In  the  production  of  ordinary  grades  of  iron  the  best 
burden  is  the  burden  that  will  yield  at  the  least  cost  the 
greatest  amount  of  the  most  saleable  iron.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  basic  iron  the  same  principle  maintains  but 
in  a  much  greater  degree,  for  this  iron  is  sold  on  analy- 
sis, and  every  cast  not  up  to  the  specifications  must  find 
another  maket. 

The  production  of  basic  iron  in  Alabama  is  a  settled 
industry,  and  will  grow  with  the  demand  for  basic  open- 
hearth  steel.  It  is  made  exclusively  of  native  materials, 
which  exist  in  large  quantities.  The  cost  of  these  mate- 
rials, per  ton  of  iron,  should  not  exceed  $5.00,  and  may 
be  brought  to  $4.50.  Putting  tha  operating  expenses  at 
$2.00  per  ton,  certainly  a  fair  estimate,  the  total  expense 
should  not  exceed  $7.00. 

The  production  of  basic  iron  in  the   United  States   in 


346          GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 

1896  and  1897,  according  to  Mr.   J.  M.  Swank,  was  as 
follows  in  tons  of  2,240  pounds  : 

1896.  1897. 

Pennsylvania  .....................  219,863         350,068 

Y!pf>inia'  \  -  -   73.604  97,562 

Alabama    ) 

New  England    ) 

New  York,         [  ..................    22,692  79,141 

New  Jersey,       ) 


I  .  .   20,244  29,720 

Wisconsin  \ 


336,403         556,491 

Virginia  and  Alabama  are  grouped  together,  but  cer- 
tainly the  production  of  Alabama  alone  would  not  fall 
much  short  of  50,000  tons;  and  about  40,000  tons  for 
1897. 

The  returns  for  1897  under  New  York  and  New  Jer- 
sey include  also  New  England.  Virginia  and  Alabama 
include  Maryland.  Ohio  and  Wisconsin  include  Illinois 
and  Missouri. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
FURNACES,   ROLLING  MILLS,  &c. 

Coke  Furnaces  in  Alabama. 

(From  the  Directory  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Works  in. 
the  United  States,  Amer.  Iron  and  Steel  Assoc..  Phil  a., 
1898.  Jas.  M.  Swank,  Manager.)* 

Clifton  Furnaces,  Clifton  Iron  Company,  Ironaton, 
Talladega  county;  two  stacks;  No.  1,  55x13,  changing 
to  70x16,  built  in  1884,  blown  in  April  16,  1885;  No.  2, 
60x14,  built  in  1889-90,  and  blown  in  during  1891; 
built  to  use  charcoal  for  fuel,  but  changed  to  coke  in 
1895;  six  Co wper  stoves  ;  fuel,  Alabama  coke  ;  ore,  local 
brown  hematite  ;  product,  foundry  pig  iron;  total  an- 
nual capacity,  72,000  gross  tons.  Brand,  "Clifton." 
T.  G.  Bush,  President,  Anniston ;  Augustus  Lowell, 
Vice-Preside  at,  Boston,  Mass.;  C..  L.  Pierson,  Treas- 
urer, Boston,  Mass. ;  Paul  Roberts,  Secretary  and  As- 
sistant Treasurer,  Ironaton.  Selling  agents,  Matthew 
Addy  and  Co.,  Cincinnati ;  C.  L.  Pierson  &  Co.,  Boston 
and  New  York. 

Fort  Payne  Furnace,  DeKalb  Furnace  Company, 
Fort  Payne,  DeKalb  county.  One  stack,  65x14,  built 
in  1889-90  and  blown  in  September  3,  1890;  three  Sie- 
mens-Cowper-Cochrane  stoves ;  fuel,  coke ;  ores,  red 
and  brown  hematite  ,  product,  forge  and  foundry  pig 
iron;  annual  capacity,  27,000  gross  tons.  (Formerly 
operated  by  the  Fort  Payne  Furnace  Company).  A.  L, 
Tayles,  President;  E.  Dudley  Freeman,  Treasurer. 
Idle  and  for  sale. 


348         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Gadsden-Alabama  Furnace,  Gadsden,  Etowah  county; 
one  stack,  75x16,  built  in  1887-88,  and  first  blown  in 
October  14,  1888 ;  three  Wliitwell  stoves ;  fuel,  coke ; 
ores,  local  red  and  brown  hematite;  product,  foundry 
and  basic  pig  iron  ;  annual  capacity,  35,000  gross  tons. 
Brand,  "Etowah."  Owned  by  Thomas  T.  Hillman, 
George  L.  Morris  and  Mrs.  Aileen  Ligon,  of  Birming- 
ham. Idle,  and  for  sale  or  lease. 

Hattie  Ensley  Furnace,  Colbert  Iron  Company,  les- 
see, Sheffield,  Colbert  county;  one  stack,  75x17,  built  in 
1887  and  blown  in  December  31st,  1887  ;  three  Whit- 
well  stoves;  fuel,  coke;  ore,  local  brown  hematite; 
product,  foundry  pi'g  iron,  annual  capacity  48,ooo  gross 
tons.  Brand,  "Lady  Ensley."  A.  A.  Berger,  Presi- 
dent: "Wade  Allen,  Vice-President ;  J.  V.  Allen,  Secre- 
tary and  Treasurer  ;  A.  J.  McGarry,  Manager.  Selling 
agents.  Rogers,  Brown  &  Co.,  Cinti.,  N.  Y.,  &c. 

Mary  Pratt  Furnace,  W.T.  Underwood,  Birmingham, 
Jefferson  county.  One  stack,  65x14,  built  in  1882,  and 
first  put  in  blast  in  April,  1883  :  rebuilt  in  1889  ;  three 
Whitwell  stoves;  fuel,  coke;  ores,  local  brown  and  red 
fossiliferous  ;  annual  capacity  30, 000  gross  tons.  Brand, 
"Mary  Pratt."  Idle  for  several  years. 

Philadelphia  Furnace,  Florence  Cotton  andiron  Com- 
pany, Florence,  Lauderdale  county.  Main  office,  330 
Walnut  St.,  Philadelphia,  One  stack,  75x17,  com- 
menced by  the  W.  B.  Wood  Furnace  Company  in  1887, 
and  completed  by  the  present  company  in  1890-1 ;  three 
Whitwell  stoves,  each  70x20;  fuel,  coke;  ore,  brown 
hematite  from  Lawrence  county,  Tenn.;  product,  foun- 
dry pig  iron  ;  annual  capacity  45,000  gross  tons.  Brand, 
''Philadelphia."  Robert  Dornan,  Vice-President ;  James 
Pollock  and  William  H.  Arrott,  committee  for  bond- 
holders;  E.  Cooper  Shapley,  attorney,  Girard  Building, 
Phila.  For  sale.  Idle  since  1893. 


FURNACES,  ROLLING  MILLS,  ETC.          349 

Pioneer  Furnaces,  Pioneer  Mining  and  Manufacturing 
Company,  Thomas,  Jefferson  county  ;  two  stacks,  each 
75x16.5  ;  No.  1  built  in  1886-88,  and  blown  in  May  15, 
1888;  No.  2  built  in  1889-90,  and  blown  in  February 
22nd,  1890;  eight  Siemens-Cowper-Cochrane  stoves; 
fuel,  Alabama  coke;  ores,  red  and  brown  hematite  from 
the  company's  mines  near  the  furnaces;  product,  foundry 
pig  iron;  total  annual  capacity  95,000  gross  tons. 
Brand,  "Pioneer."  Edwin  Thomas,  President,  and 
Samuel  Thomas,  Vice-President,  Catasaqua,  Penna.; 
George  H.  Myers,  Secretary  and  Treasurer,  Bethlehem, 
Penna.  Selling  agents,  Matthew  Addy  and  Co.,  Cincin- 
nati ;  W.  R.  Thomas,  50  Wall  St.,  N.  Y. ,  Dallett  &  Co., 
201  Walnut  Place,  Phila. 

Sheffield  Furnaces,  Sheffield  Coal,  Iron  and  Steel 
Company,  Sheffield,  Colbert  County.  Three  stacks,  each 
75x18,  built  in  1887-88;  No.  1  blown  in  during  Sept., 
1888,  and  No.  2  blown  in  during  Oct.,  1889  ;  No.  3  not 
yet  blown  in  ;  Nos.  1  and  2  rebuilt  in  1891 ;  nine  Whit- 
well-Cowper  stoves  ;  fuel,  Alabama  and  Virginia  coke  ; 
ores,  Alabama  and  Tennessee  brown  hematite  ;  product, 
foundry  pig  iron  ;  total  annual  capacity.  150,000  gross 
tons.  Brand,  "  Sheffield."  A.  W.  Willis  President, 
E.  W.  Cole,  Vice-President,  T.  D.  Radcliffe,  Secretary, 
Sheffield;  S.  B.  McTyer,  Treasurer,  J.  J.  Gray,  Jr., 
Superintendent,  Sheffield.  Selling  agents,  Rogers, 
Brown  and  Co.,  N.  Y.,  Miller,  Wagoner,  Feiser  &  Co.r 
Columbus,  Ohio.;  Hickman,  Williams  &  Co.,  Louis- 
ville, Ky. 

Sloss  Furnace,  Sloss  Iron  and  Steel  Company,  Bir- 
mingham, Jefferson  County.  Four  stacks:  No.  1, 
82.25x18,  built  in  1881-82,  put  in  blast  April  12th,  1882, 
and  rebuilt  in  1895  ;  No.  2,  68x18,  built  in  1882  :  No.  3, 
73x16.5,  built  in  1887-88,  and  blown  in  during  Oct., 
1888;  No.  4,  73x16.5,  built  in  1887-89,  and  blown  in 


350         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

during  Feb.,  1889>  five  Whitwell,  eight  Gordon-Whit- 
well-Co  wper,  and  three  two- pass  18x70  stoves  ;  fuel, 
coke;  ores,  red  fossiliferous,  hard  and  soft,  and  brown 
hematite;  ores  and  coal  mined  on  the  company's  prop- 
erty within  ten  to  fifteen  miles  of  furnaces ;  product, 
foundry  and  mill  pig  iron  ;  totol  annual  capacity,  200,- 
000  gross  tons,  Brand,  "  Sloss."  Sol  Haas,  Presi- 
dent; E.  W.  Rucker,  Vice-President ;  J.  W.  McQueen, 
Secretary,  A.  H.  McCormick,  Treasurer.  Selling  agents, 
D.  L.  Cobb,  Louisville  and  Chicago  :  Rogers,  Brown  and 
Warner,  Phila.  ;  Hugh  W.  Adams  and  Co.,  15  Beek- 
man  St.,  N.  Y. 

Spathite  Furnace,  The  Spathite  Iron  Company,  Flor- 
ence, Lauderdale  County.  One  stack,  75x14,  completed 
in  December,  1888,  and  blown  in  during  in  during  Oct., 
1889  ;  rebuilt  in  1893;  three  improved  Pollock  'stoves  ; 
fuel,  coke  ;  ores,  Spathite  and  brown  hematite  from  Iron 
City,  Term.;  product,  spathite  pig  iron  ;  annual  capac- 
ity, 30,000  gross  tons.  Brand,  "Spathite."  (For- 
merly called  North  Alabama  Furnace.)  J.  Overton 
Ewin,  Receiver;  J.  H.  Short,  Superintendent.  Selling 
agents,  Rogers,  Brown  &  Co.,  Cincinnati.  Sold  Nov. 
25th,  1895,  to  Louisville  Banking  Company.  Louisville, 
Kentucky.  Idle  and  for  sale. 

Spathite  Furnace,  No.  1,  Spathite  Iron  Company, 
Nashville,  Tenn.  Furnace  at  Birmingham.  One  stack, 
65xl5i  ;  commenced  building  February  9,^1890  ;  blown 
in  August  23,  1890;  remodeled  in  1897;  three  Massicks 
and  Crooke  stoves  ;  fuel,  Alabama  coke  ;  ores,  spathite 
and  brown  ;  product,  spathite  pig  iron  ;  anuual  capac- 
ity, 40,000  gross  ton.  (Formerly  called  Clara  Furnace) , 
Thomas  Sharp,  President  (died  1898)  ;  William  M.  Dun- 
can. Vice-President;  John  P.  Helms,  Secretary  and 
Treasurer. 

Talladega  Furnace,  Talladega  Furnace  Company,  Tal- 


FURNACES,  ROLLING  MILLS,  ETC.          351 

ladega,  Talladega  County.  One  stack,  72x18,  built  in 
1889,  and  blown  in  October  5th,  1S89  ;  three  Ford  and 
Moncur  stoves,  each  62x26 ;  fuel,  Alabama  and  West 
Virginia  coke  ;  ore,  local  brown  hematite  ;  product,  Bes- 
semer, foundry  and  forge  pig  iron;  annual  capacity, 
40,000  gross  tons.  Brand, ' '  Talladega."  Rudolph  Gut- 
raann,  President;  William  P.  Parrish,  Secretary.  Idle 
for  several  years. 

Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  and  Railroad  Company,  Bir- 
mingham, Jefferson  County.  Thirteen  stacks  in  Jeffer- 
son County.  Five  stacks  at  Bessemer:  Nos.  1  and  2, 
each  75x17,  built  in  1886-87  ;  No.  1  put  in  blast  in  1888, 
.and  No.  2  in  1889  ;  seven  Whitwell-  stoves  ;  Nos.  3  and 
4,  each  75x17,  built  in  1889-90  ;  eight  Whitwell  stoves; 
No.  5,  or  Little  Belle,  60x12,  built  in  1889-90,  three 
Whitwell  stoves. 

Oxmoor  Furnaces,  at  Oxmoor,  (formerly  called  Eu- 
reka Furnaces)  two  stacks  :  No.  1  75x17,  completed  in 
July  1877,  and  rebuilt  and  blown  in  during  Dec.  1885  ; 
No.  2,  75x17,  first  blown  in  in  March,  1876,  and  rebuilt 
and  blown  in  during  Aug.,  18S6  ;  seven  Whitwell  stoves. 
Fuel,  Pratt  and  Blue  Creek  coke,  made  in  Company's 
ovens  ;  ores,  local  brown  hematite  and  red  1'ossiliferous 
from  tlio  company's  mines  ;  product, 'foundry,  mill  and 
basic  open-hearth  pig  iron ;  total  annual  capacity, 
126,000  gross  tons.  Brand,  "  DeBardeleben." 

Alice  Furnaces,  at  Birmingham,  two  stacks  :  No  1, 
75x15,  built  in  1879-80,  and  put  in  blast  November  23d, 
1880  ;  raised  to  present  height  in  1890  ;  three  Gordon- 
Whitwell-Cowper  stoves  ;  No.  2,  75x18,  built  in  1883, 
and  put  in  blast  July  24th,  1883  ;  three  Whitwell  stoves  ; 
brand,  "Alice,"  product,  basic  and  foundry  pig ;  an- 
nual capacity,  113,000  tons. 

Ensley  Furnaces,  at  Ensley.  Four  stacks,  each 
80x20,  built  in  1887,  1888,  and  1889;  No.  1  blown  in 


352         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

March  19.  1889;  No.  2,  December  1st,  1888;  No.  3,. 
June  5th,  1888,  and  No.  4  April  9th,  1888  ;  four  Gordon- 
Whitwell-Cowper  stoves  to  each  furnace.  Brand,  "  En- 
sley."  Fuel,  Pratt  coke  made  in  the  company's  ovens  ; 
ores,  red  and  brown  hematite  from  the  company's  mines 
product,  foundry,  and  forge  pig  iron  ;  annual  capacity  of 
Alice  Furnaces  113,000  gross  tons  ;  of  Ensley  furnaces, 
292,000  tons.  Total  annual  capacity  of  the  thirteen 
stacks,  823,000  tons.  N.  Baxter,  Jr.,  President ;  James 
Bowron,  1st  Vice-President  and  Treasurer;  A.  M.  Shook,. 
2d  Vice-President;  George  B.  McCormack,  General 
Manager;  T.  F.  Fletcher,  Jr.,  Secretary  and  Assistant 
Treasurer;  H.  D.  Cooper,  Auditor;  Erskine  Ramsay, 
Chief  Engineer ;  John  Dowling,  Superintendent  of  Bes- 
semer Division  •  A.  E.  Barton,  Superintendent  of  En- 
sley Division.  Selling  agents,  Rogers,  Brown  &  Co.y 
Cincinnati,  and  branch  houses  ;  Matthew  Addy  &  Co.r 
Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis. 

Trussville  Furnace,  Trussville,  Jefferson  County.  One 
stack,  65x18,  built  in  1887-89,  and  blown  in  in  April, 
1889  ,  three  Whitwell  stoves  :  fuel,  Alabama  coke  ;  ore, 
local  red  hematite  ;  product,  foundry  pig  iron  ;  annual 
capacity,  30,000  gross  tons.  Brand,  "Trussville." 
Owned  by  Messrs.  Hogsett,  Ewing  and  Thompson,  Un- 
iontown,  Pa. 

Williamson  Furnace,  Williamson  Iron  Compay,  Birm- 
ingham, Jefferson  county.  One  stack,  65x13.66,  built 
in  1886,  and  first  blown  in  in  October,  1886;  three  Mas- 
sicks  and  Crooke  stoves  ;  fuel,  coke  made  at  Coalburg ; 
ores,  red  fossil  and  brown  hematite  ;  product,  foundry 
and  mill  pig  iron;  annual  capacity  18,000  gross  tons. 
Brand,  "Williamson."  C.  P.  Williamson,  President 
and  General  Manager  ;  H.  D.  Williamson,  Vice-Presi- 
dent; J.  B.  Simpson,  Secretary  and  Treasurer.  Idle 
since  1892. 


FURNACES,  ROLLING  MILLS,  ETC. 

Woodstock  Furnaces,    The    Woodstock    Iron   Works,. 
Anniston,  Calhoun  county.     Two    stacks,    each   75x16,. 
built  in  1887-89,  and  one  blown  in  October  10th,   1889  ;. 
seven  Whitwell  stoves ;  fuel,  Alabama  coke;  ore,  local- 
brown    hematite;    product,    foundry  pig  iron;  annual 
capacity  of  No.  4,  60,000  gross  tons.     Brand  "Wood-- 
stock."     John  D.  Probst,  President,  and  George  Glover,, 
Secretary,  New  York  ;  H.  Atkinson,  Vice-President  and 
Treasurer,  and  A.  H.  Quinn,  Assistant  Treasurer,  Annis- 
ton. 

Woodward    Iron    Company,      Woodward,     Jefferson- 
county.     Two  stacks,  each  75x17,  one  built  in   1882-83,. 
and  put  in  blast  in  August,  1883,  and  t.he  other  built  in 
1886  ;  eight  Whitwell  stoves  ;  fuel,  coke  made  from  the 
company's  coal ;    ore,   red  fossiliferous,    mined   within 
three  miles  of  the  furnace  ;  specialty,  foundry  pig  iron  ;;, 
total    annual    capacity,    100,000    gross    tons.     Brand,. 
"Woodward."     J.  H.  Woodward,  President;  Frank  M. 
Eaton,    Secretary;    Silas    Hine,   Treasurer;  J.    H.   Me— 
Cune,  General  Superintendent. 

Number  of  coke  furnaces  in  Alabama,  37  completed 
stacks,  and  1  stack  partly  erected. 

Annual  capacity  of  coke  furnaces  in  Alabama,  1,965,- 
000  gross  tons. 

Number  of  coke  and  bituminous  furnaces  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  247 ;  annual  capacity  15,114,700  gross  tons. 

Alabama  has  15.0  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of 
coke  furnaces,  10.8  per  cent,  of  the  total  annual  capaci- 
ty, and  produces  16.0  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  of 
coke  iron. 

Dividing  the  period  1876-1895  into  4  sub- periods  of 
5  years  each  we  have  the  following  comparisons  : 

1876-1880,  coke  furnaces  built  4  ;  production  in  1876r 
1,262  tons;  in  1880,  35,232  tons;  increase  33,9^0  tonsr 
or  28  times. 

23 


354         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

1881-1885,  coke  furnaces  built  6 ;  production  in 
48,107  tons;  in    1885,    133,808    tons;  increase,    85,701 
tons,  or  2.78  times. 

1886-1890,  coke  furnaces  built  29  ;  production  in  1886, 
180,133  tons;  in  1890,  718,383  ions;  increase  538,250 
tons,  or  3.99  times. 

1891-1895,  no  coke  furnaces  built. 

The  greatest  activity  was  displayed  in  the  period  1886- 
1890,  as  of  the  33  completed  stacks  in  1895,  20  or  74.5 
per  cent,  were  built  during  these  years.  It  was  not  un- 
til 1888  that  the  production  of  coke  iron  passed  the  200,- 
000  ton  mark,  and  not  until  1889  did  it  rise  above  500,- 
000  tons,  and  assume  respectable  proportions.  Until 
1897  the  year  1895  witnessed  the  largest  production  of 
coke  iron  ever  recorded  in  the  State,  835,851  tons,  ex- 
celling the  output  of  1892  by  11  tons. 

Of  the  835,851  tons  387, 793  tons,  (46.4  per  c?nt.)  were 
made  during  the  first  half  of  the  year,  18  furnaces  being 
in  blast  June  30 fch,  and  448,058  tons  (53.6  per  cent.)  in 
tlie  second  half,  20  furnaces  being  in  blast  December 
31st. 

The  60,265  tons  made  in  the  second  half  of  the  year 
in  excess  of  the  output  during  the  first  half  may  be 
taken  as  representing  the  increase  due  to  the  upward 
tendency  of  prices  .which  seemed  to  be  genuine  about 
that  time. 

The  production  of  coke  iron  since  1876  is  given  in  the 
following  table  : 


FURNACES,  ROLLING  MILLS,  ETC.          355 

TABLE  XLIX. 

Production  of  Coke   Iron  in  Alabama. — Tons  of    2240 

pounds. 


YEAR. 

TONS. 

YEAR.      TONS. 

YEAR 

TONS. 

YEAR. 

TONS. 

1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 

1,262 
14,643 
15,615 
J5,937 
35,23-.' 
48.107 

1882  51,093 
1883  102,750 
1884  116,264 
1885  133,808 
1886  180,133 
1887  176.374 

1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 

5L/,289 
608,034 
718,383 
717,687 
835.840 
659.725 

1H94 
1895 
1896 
1897 

556,314 

835,851 
892.383 
932,918 

Charcoal  Furnaces  in  Alabama. 

i 

[From  the  Directory  to  the  Iron  and  Steel  Works  in  the  United  States, 
American  Iron  and  Steel  Association,  Phila.  Jas.  M.  Swank,  Man- 
ager. ] 

Attalla  Furnace,  Buffalo  Iron  Company,  Nashville* 
Tenn.  Furnace  at  Attalla,  Etowali  county.  One  stack, 
55x11,  built  in  1888-S9,  and  blown  in  June  15th,  1889; 
iron  stoves  ;  ores,  red  and  brown  hematite  from  Etowali 
and  Cherokee  counties ;  product,  car-wheel  pig  iron ; 
annual  capacity,  18,000  gross  tons.  Brand,  ''Attalla." 
Robt.  Ewing,  President;  J.  A.  Cooper,  Secretary  and 
Treasurer.  Idle  since  1892. 

Bibb  Furnace,  Alabama  Iron  and  Steel  Company, 
Brierfield.  Bibb  county.  One  stack,  55x12,  built  in 
1864  to  use  charcoal;  rebuilt  in  1881,  and  remodeled  in 
1886  to  use  coke  ;  returned  to  the  use  of  charcoal  in 
1890;  re-built  in  1892  ;  warm  blast ;  ore,  brown  hema- 
tite, mined  in  the  vicinity  ;  product,  car-wheel  pig  iron  ; 
annual  capacity,  14,500  gross  tons.  Brand,  "Bibb." 
T.  J.  Peter,  President.  Selling  agents,  C.  R.  Baird  & 
Co.,  Phil.,  De  Camp  &  Yule,  St.  Louis  ;  Forster,  Hawes 
&  Co.,  Chicago.  Idle  since  1894. 

Clifton  Furnace,   Clifton   Iron    Company,    Ironaton, 
Talladega  county.     One  stack,    No.   2,  60x14;  built  in 


356  GEOLOGICAL  StTRVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

1889-90,  and  blown  in  in   1-891;  hot  blast;  ore,  local' 
brown  hematite;  product,  car  wheel  and  malleable  pig: 
iron;     annual    capacity,    22,000    gross   tons.      Brand, 
"Clifton."      (See  Coke  Furnaces) . 

Jenifer  Furnace,  Jenifer  Furnace  Company,  Jenifer, 
Talladega  county.  Central  office,  Anniston.  One  stackr 
56x11,  built  in  1892,  and  blown  in  December  oth,  1892r 
taking  the  place  of  the  old  stone  stack  built  in  1863  ; 
two  Hugh  Kennedy  stoves,  each  45x16  ;  ore,  local  brown 
hematite  ;  product,  car- wheel  pig  iron  ;  annual  capacity 
12,000  gross  tons.  Brand,  '  'Jenifer."  (One  stack,  built 
in  1863,  abandoned  and  dismantled  in  1872.)  John  H. 
Noble,  President,  and  John  E.  Ware,  Secretary  and 
Treasurer,  Anniston.  Selling  agents,  Rogers,  Brown  <fc 
Co.,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis;  C.  R.  Baird  &  Co.,, 
Phila. 

Rock  Run  Furnace,  Rock  Run  Iron  and  Mining  Com- 
pany, Rock  Run,  Cherokee  county.  One  stack,  54. 5x11. 5r. 
built  in  1873-4,  enlarged  in  1881  and  1892,  and  rebuilt  in 
1894;  warm  blast ;  ore,  local  brown  hematite;  product,,, 
car-wheel  pig  iron  ;  annual  capacity,  15,000  gross  tons.- 
Brand,  "Rock  Run."  J.  H.  Bass,  President,  J.  I. 
White,  Secretary,  and  F.  S.  Lightfoot,  Treasurer,  Fort 
Wayne,  Indiana;  J.  M.  Garvin,  Superintendent,  Rock 
Run. 

Round  Mountain  Furnace  (formerly  called  Round 
Mountain  Iron  Works),  the  Round  Fountain  Furnace 
Company,  lessee,  Chattanooga,  Tenn.  Furnace  at  Round 
Mountain,  Cherokee  county.  One  stack,  45x9.5,  built  in 
1853,  rebuilt  in  1874  and  remodeled  in  1888  ;  cold  blast; 
ore,  red  fossilliferous  ;  specialty,  cold  blast  charcoal  pig 
iron  for  chilled  rolls  and  car- wheels  ;  annual  capacity, 
6,500  gross  tons.  Brand,  "Round  Mountain."  L.  S. 
Colyar,  President;  Jo.  C.  Guild,  Vice-President ;  E. 
Shackelford,  Secretary;  E.  B.  Pennington,  Superin- 


FURNACES,  &OLLING  MILLS,  ETC.  357 

tendent.  Selling  agents,  Rogers,  Brown  &  Co.,  Cincin- 
nati, and  branch  houses;  J.  E.  Carcright,  St.  Louis. 
Owned  by  the  Elliott  Pig  Iron  Company,  Gadsden. 

Shelby  Furnaces,  Shelby  Iron  Company,  Shelby, 
Shelby  county.  Two  stacks,  Nos.  1  and  2,  each  60x14, 
built  in  1863  and  1873;  No.  1  rebuilt  in  1889;  warm 
blast;  ore,  brown  hematite  obtained  on  the  furnace  prop- 
erty ;  product,  car- wheel  pig  iron;  total  annual  capacity, 
40,000grosstons.  Brand,  "Shelby. "  T.  G.  Bush,  Presi- 
dent, Anniston ;  B.  Y.  Frost,  Secretary,  and  W.  S. 
Gurnee,  Treasurer,  80  Broadway,  N.  Y.  ;  E.  T.  With- 
erby,  Assistant  Treasurer,  Shelby.  Selling  agents, 
Matthew  Addy  &  Co.,  Cincinnati.;  C.  L.  Pierson  &  Co., 
Boston  and  New  York. 

Number  of  charcoal  furnaces  in  Alabama,  8  completed 
•stacks,  and  1  stack  partly  erected,  annual  capacity,  12,- 
800  gross  tons.  Number  of  charcoal  furnaces  in  the 
United  States,  79 ;  annual  capacity,  957,400  gross 
tons.  Dividing  the  period  1876-1895,  as  under  coke 
furnaces,  into  four  sub-periods  of  five  years  each,  we 
have  the  following  comparisons  : 

1876-1880— Charcoal  furnaces  built,  1 ;  outputin  1876, 
20 ,818  tons;  in  1880,  33,693  tons;  increase,  21,875  or 
1.62  times. 

1881-1885— Charcoal  furnaces  built ,  2  ;  output  in  1881, 
39,483  tons  ;  in  1885,  69,261  tons  ;  increase,  29 ,778  tons, 
or  1.65  times. 

1886-1890— Charcoal  furnaces  built,  4  ;  output  in  1886, 
73,312  tons,  in  1890,  98,528  tons,  increase,  25,216  tons, 
or  1.34  times. 

1891-1895— Charcoal  furnaces  built,  2  ;  outputin  1891, 
77,985  tons;  in  1895,  18,*16  tons,  decrease  59,169  tons, 
or  a  little  more  than  three-fourths. 

Of  the  twelve  completed  charcoal  stacks  in  1895,  4,  or 
33  per  cent,  were  built  in  the  period  1886-1890,  two  in 


358 


GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF' ALABAMA. 


1873,  one  in  1874,  and  the  others  as  above.  In  char- 
coal, as  in  coke  furnaces,  the  greatest  activity  was  dis- 
played during  the  period  of  1886-1890,  although  the 
activity  in  coke  furnaces  was  much  more  pronounced. 
Alabama  has  72.5  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of  char- 
coal furnaces,  15.3  per  cent,  of  the  total  annual  capac- 
ity, and  made  in  1895  8.3  per  cent,  of  the  total  produc- 
tion of  charcoal  iron. 

The  charcoal  iron  industry  has  been  declining  for 
several  years.  It  reached  its  maximum  in  1889,  with 
98,595  tons.  At  that  time  Alabama  was  producing  17.1 
per  cent,  of  the  total,  and  was  second  in  point  of  pro- 
duction. 

The  statistics  of  production  are  given  in  the  following 
table  : 

TABLE   L. 

Product  of  Charcoal  Iron  in  Alabama.     Tons  of  2,240 

Pounds. 


Year. 

Tons. 

Year. 

Tons. 

1 

Year. 

Tons. 

Year. 

Tons. 

1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 

11.171 
19.895 
29.342 
22.418 
20.818 
22  180 

1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 

2L.4221 
28.563 
33.763 
49.483 
49.590 
51.2371 

1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 

53.078 
69.261 
73.312 
85.020 
84.041 
98.59- 

1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 

98528 
77.985 
79.456 
67.163 
36.078 
18.816 

1896,  29.787. 

1897,  14.913. 


TABLE  LI. 

Hot  Blast  Stoves  in  Alabama— 1896-98 


Cowper. 

t 

ro 

and 
Moncur. 

Gordon- 

Whitwell" 

Cowper. 

b 

--o- 

Kennedy. 

MaBsicks 

c5 
O 

Pollock. 

Siemens- 

Cowper- 
Cochrane. 

Whitwell 

r 

i 

PI 
K 

r- 

D    ^ 

0 

d 

oi 
O 

1 

o 

Per  Cent. 

6 

2; 

Per  Cent. 

c 
2; 

c 

6 

h 

0) 

6 

25 

[Per  Cent. 

• 

a 

1 

•i 

Per  Cent 

c 
2; 

Per  Cent. 

^d 

c 

QJ 

Q 

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1,  4.4{  3|  2.2JH!  8.1|65|47.8!  9|  6.6J     136 


FURNACES,   ROLLING  MILLS,   ETC.  359 

Rolling  Mills,.  Steel  Works,  Etc.,  in  Alabama. 

(From  the  Directory  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Works  in 
the  United  States.  American  Iron  and  Steel  Assoc., 
Phil.,  1898,  Jas.  M.  Swank,  Manager). 

Alabama  Iron  and  Steel  Company  (formerly  Brierfield 
Rolling  Mill),  Brierfield,  Bibb  county.  Built  in  1863, 
rebuilt  in  1882-3,  and  put  in  operation  in  August,  1883  ; 
10  double  and  4  single  puddling  furnaces,  5  heating  fur- 
naces, 3  18-inch  grains  of  rolls  and  72  cut  nail  machines  ; 
product,  merchant  bar  iron  and  nails  ;  annual  capacity, 
12,000  gross  tons.  E.  J.  Peter,  Secretary.  ' 

Alabama  Rolling  Mill  Company,  Birmingham, 
Jefferson  county.  Works  at  Gate  City,  Jefferson 
county.  Built  in  1887-88  and  put  in  operation  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1888  ;  23  single  puddling  furnaces,  2  gas  heating 
furnaces,  and  3  trains  of  rolls  (18-inch  muck  and  8 
and  16-inch  bar);  products,  bars,  bands,  hoops,  light 
T  rails,  &c.;  annual  capacity,  24,000  gross  tons.  W.  J. 
Behan,  President;  W.  H.  Hassinger,  Vice-President 
and  General  Manager;  D.  M.  Forker,  Secretary  and 
Treasurer. 

Alabama  Steel  Works  (formerly  Fort  Payne  Rolling 
Mill),  The  DeKalb  Company,  lessee.  Fort  Payne,  De- 
Kalb  county.  Built  in  .1889-90  ;  two  lo-gross  ton  basic 
open-hearth  steel  furnaces ;  first  steel  made  in  July, 
1893  ;  4  gas  heating  furnaces,  5  cut-nail  machines  (idle) , 
and  2  trains  of  rolls  (one  2-high  32-inch  reversing  and 
one  22-inch  nail  plate)  ;  product,  ingots,  blooms,  billets 
and  slabs  ;  annual  capacity,  10,000  gross  tons  of  ingots, 
Fuel  used,  producer  gas.  J.  A.  Wilder,  President;  J. 
K.  Lanning,  Vice-President  and  Treasurer. 

Anniston  Rolling  Mills,  Anniston  Iron  and  Steel  Com- 
pany, lessee,  Anniston,  Calhoun  county.  Built  in 
1890-91 ;  12  single  puddling  furnaces,  2  large  heating 


360         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

furnaces  and  2  trains  of  rolls  (3-high,  20-inch  muck  and 
3-high  12-inch  finishing).  J.  K.  Dimmick,  President; 
H.  B.  Cooper,  Vice-President  and  General  Manager; 
John  S.  Mooring,  Secretary  and  Treasurer.  Owned  by 
the  Anniston  Rolling  Mills  Company. 

Bessemer  (The)  Rolling  Mills,  Bessemer,  Jefferson 
county.  Built  in  1887-88  ;  24  single  puddling  furnaces, 
6  heating  furnaces,  5  trains  of  rolls  (one  20-inch  muck, 
one  8-inch  guide,  and  16  inch  car,  one  22-inch  sheet, 
and  one  26-inch  plate) ,  and  three  Siemens  gas  producers; 
product,  bar,  guide,  plate  and  sheet  iron  ;  annual  capac- 
ity, 27,000  gross  tons.  Owned  by  Morris  Adler,  of  Bir- 
mingham, and  others.  Idle  since  the  spring  of  1891, 
and  for  sale. 

Birmingham  Rolling  Mills,  Birmingham  Rolling  Mill 
Company,  Birmingham,  Jefferson  county.  Built  in 
1880,  and  first  put  into  operation  in  July,  1880  ;  enlarged 
in  1887  and  1895;  11  double  and  24  single  puddling 
furnaces,  one  scrap  furnace,  seven  gas,  four  box  anneal- 
ing, two  pair  and  four  sheet  heating  and  annealing 
furnaces,  and  nine  trains  of  rolls,  (two  8-inch  guide, 
one  16-inch  bar,  two  18-inch  forge,  two  24-inch  sheet, 
one  26-inch  plate,  and  one  24-inch  finishing"!  ;  product, 
iron  and  steel  bars,  plates,  sheets,  angles,  round-edge 
tire,  small  T  rail,  fish  plates,  &c. ;  annual  capacity, 
70,000  gross  tons.  Fuel  used,  producer  gas  and  coal. 
Two  30-ton  basic  open  hearth  steel  furnaces  were  built 
in  1897,  and  the  first  heat  made  July  22,  1897. 
James  G.  C  aid  well,  President ;  Thomas  Ward,  General 
Manager;  J.  D.  Dwyer,  Superintendent;  J.  H.  Mohns, 
Salesman. 

Jefferson  Steel  Company,  Birmingham,  Jefferson 
county.  Built  in  1889-90;  one  15-gross  ton  basic 
open-hearth  steel  furnace ;  first  steel  made  April  14, 
1890;  product,  ingots;  annual  capacity,  8,100  gross 


FURNACES,  ROLLING  MILLS,  ETC.  361 

tons.  Brand,  "Jefferson."  (This  furnace  takes  the 
place  of  one  experimental  Henderson  open-hearth  steel 
furnace  built  in  1887-88,  and  first  steel  made  February 
27,  1888.  Formerly  operated  by  the  Henderson  Steel 
Manufacturing  Company.)  Eugene  F.  Enslen,  Secre- 
tary, Treasure!'  and  General  Manager. 

Sheffield  Rolling  Mill,  Sheffield,  Colbert  county. 
Built  in  1897-98,  utilizing  machinery  from  the  aban- 
doned Midway  Iron  Works  and  Roanoke  Rolling  Mill, 
Roanoke,  Virginia;  12  double  puddling  furnaces,  5 
heating  furnaces,  and  4  trains  of  rolls  (one  3-high  18- 
inch  muck  and  billet,  one  3-high  16-inch  bar,  and  two 
10-inch  guide)  ;  product,  bar,  angle,  rod  and  band  iron, 
small  size  T  rails,  D  links  and  cotton  ties,  railroad  and 
boat  spikes  ;  annual  capacity,  20,000  gross  tons.  Fuel, 
bituminous  coal. 

Shelby  Rolling  Mill  Company  (formerly  Central  Iron 
Works) ,  Helena,  Shelby  county.  Works  started  in 
March,  1873  ;  enlarged  by  present  company  in  1889  ;  10 
single  puddling  furnaces,  three  heating  furnaces  and 
four  trains  of  rolls  ;  product,  merchant  bar  and  band 
iron,  ana  light  T  rolls;  annual  capacity,  7,200  gross 
tons.  Company  failed  ;  works  idle  for  several  years. 
Address,  Joseph  F.  Johnston,  Birmingham. 

Illinois  Car  and  Equipment  Company,  Anniston,  Cal- 
houn  county.  Chicago  office,  1480  Old  Colony  Build- 
ing; New  York  office.  45  Broadway.  Built  in  1884 
and  enlarged  in  1888-89,  and  1893  ;  one  single  and  six 
double  puddling  furnaces,  six  heating  furnaces,  one 
scrap  farnace,  two  trains  of  rolls  (one  18-inch  muck 
and  bar,  and  one  10-inch  merchant  and  guide),  and  five 
hammers  (one  6,000  pound,  two  4,000  pound,  and  two 
helve)  ;  product,  car  axles  and  merchant  bar  iron  ;  an- 
nual capacity,  15,000  gross  tons.  David  Cornfoot, 
President,  London,  England;  H.  A.  Ware,  Vice-Presi- 


3B2-         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

dent,  New  York  ;  S.  M.  Dix,  Secretary  and  Treasurer, 
J.  M.  Maris,  General  Manager,  Chicago  ;  0.  M.  Stinson. 
General  Superintendent,  Anniston. 

Steel   Works  Projected. 

The  Tennessee  Coal,  Iron  &  Kailroad  Company,  in 
connection  with  other  capital,  will  erect  a  large  basic 
open-hearth  steel  plant  during  1897-98.  Location,  Ens- 
ley,  Jefferson  county. 

Number  of  rolling  mills  and  steel  works  in  Alabama  : 
Ten.  Of  these,  three  have  basic  open-hearth  steel  plants. 

No  steel  was  made  in  the  State  in  1894, 1895,  or  1896. 
The  total  amount  made  from  1888  to  the  close  of  1893 
will  not  exceed  4,000  gross  tons. 

Annual  capacity  of  rolling  mills,  193,300  gross  tons 
with  one  mill  not  reporting.  Allowing  10,000.  gross 
tons  for  this  one,  the  total  annual  capacity  is  123,300 
gross  tons. 

Number  of  contemplated  rolling  mills  and  steel  works 
in  the  United  States,  January  1,  1898,  504;  annual 
capacity,  double  turn,  17,929,850  gross  tons. 

Forges  and  Bloomaries. 

Anniston  Bloomary,  Cherokee  Iron  Company,  Cedar- 
town,  Georgia.  Works  at  Anniston,  Calhoun  county. 
Built  in  1887 ;  five  forge  fires  and  one  hammer  ;  steam 
power;  product,  blooms  made  from  pig  iron.  Idle. 
Wm.  C.  Browning,  President,  and  J.  Hull  Browning, 
Treasurer,  408  Broome  steert,New  York  ;  J.  R.  Barber, 
Secretary  and  General  Manager,  Cedartown,  Georgia. 
Now  abandoned. 


FURNACES,  ROLLING  MILLS,  ETC.          363 

Pipe   Works i   Car  Wheel   Works  and  Miscellaneous. 
Bridge  Building  Works. 

Southern  Bridge  Company,  Birmingham.  Works  at 
Avondale,  Jefferson  county.  Capacity,  1,000  tons. 

Alabama  Bridge  and  Boiler  Works,  Birmingham. 
Railroad  and  highway  bridges.  Annual  capacity,  1,500 
tons. 

Gas  and  Water  Pipe  Works. 

Anniston  Pipe  Works,  Anniston  Pipe  and  Foundry 
Company,  Anniston,  Calhoun  county.  Size  from  3  to 
30  inches.  Daily  melting  capacity.  359  tons. 

Chattanooga  Foundry  and  Pipe  Works,  Chattanooga, 
Tenn.  Works  at  Bridgeport,  Jackson  county.  Sizes, 
from  14  to  36  Inches ,  inclusive .  Daily  melting  capacity, 
160  tons. 

Howard-Harrison  Iron  Company,  Bessemer,  Jefferson 
county.  Sizes,  from  8  to  72  inches,  inclusive.  Daily 
melting  capacity,  300  tons. 

Soil  and  Plumbers'  Pipe  Works. 

Alabama  Pipe  Company,  Bessemer,  Jefferson  county. 
Sizes,  from  2  to  10  inches,  inclusive.  Daily  melting  ca- 
pacity, 30  tons. 

Birmingham  Soil  Pipe  Works,  Birmingham  Soil  Pipe 
Company,  Birmingham,  Jefferson  county.  Sizes,  from 
2  to  8  inches.  Daily  melting  capacity,  10  tons. 

Hoffmann,  Billings,  and  Weller  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany, 96-100  Second  St.,  Milwaukee,  Wis.  Works  at 
Gadsden,  Etowah  county,  Ala.  Sizes  from  2  to  12 
inches.  Daily  melting  capacity,  40  tons. 


364         GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OP  ALABAMA. 

Hercules  Foundry,  E.  L.  Tyler  &  Co.,  lessees,  Annis- 
ton,  Calhoun  county.  Sizes,  from  2  to  18  inches. 
Daily  melting  capacity,  50  tons. 

Car  Axle  Works. 

Peacock's  Iron  Works,  George  Peacock,  Selma,  Dal- 
las county.  Iron  and  steel  mine  car  axles.  Annual 
capacity,  15,000. 

Illinois  Car  and  Equipment  Company,  Anniston,  Cal- 
houn county.  Office,  1480  Old  Colony  Building,  Chi- 
go;  66  Beaver  street,  N.  Y.  Car  and  locomotive  axles. 
Daily  capacity,  120. 

Car  Wheel  Works. 

Decatur  Car  Wheel  and  Manufacturing  Company, 
Birmingham.  Product,  chilled,  cast-iron* wheels.  An- 
nual capacity  125,000. 

Elliott  (the)  Car  Company,  Gadsden,  Etowah  county. 
Product,  charcoal  iron  standard  M.  C.  B.  railroad 
wheels.  Annual  capacity,  48,000. 

Hood  Machine  Company,  Birmingham,  Jefferson 
county.  Product,  12,  14  and  16-inch  mine  car  wheels. 
Annual  capacity,  about  14,000. 

Peacock's  Iron  Works,  George  Peacock,  Selma,  Dal- 
las county.  Product,  all  kinds  of  small  car  wheels. 
Annual  capacity,  35,000  self-oiling  and  15,000  plate 
wheels . 

Carbuilding   Works. 

Elliott  (the)  Car  Company,  Gadsden,  Etowah  county. 
Freight  cars.  Annual  capacity,  3,600. 

Peacock's  Iron  Works,  George  Peacock,   Selma,    Dal- 


FURNACES,   ROLLING  MILLS,  ECT. 


365 


las  county.  Mine,  logging  and  other  small  cars.  An- 
nual capacity,  5,000. 

Union  Iron  Works  Company,  Selma,  Dallas  county. 
Logging,  push,  cane  and  other  small  cars.  Annual  ca- 
pacity, 1,000  of  each. 

Illinois  Garland  Equipment  Company,  Anniston. 
Offices,  1480  Old  Colony  Building,  Chicago;  66  Beaver 
street,  N.  Y.  Annual  capacity,  12,000  freight  cars  at 
each  place. 

Alabama  Bridge  and  Boiler  Works,  Birmingham. 
Iron,  steel  and  wooden  tram  cars  and  all  styles  of  cars 
for  blast  furnace  use.  Annual  capacity,  from  500  to 
1,000. 


366 


GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

TABLE  LIL 


Production  of  Iron  Ore,    Coal,    Coke   and  Pig  Iron   in 

Alabama. 


i 

Pig  Iron      Tons  of 

Iron    Ore. 

Coal. 

Coke. 

2,240  Ibs. 

!  Tons   of 

Tons   of 

Tons  of 

^ 

2,240  Ibs. 

2,000  Ibs.    2,000  Ibs 

* 

Coke. 

Charcoal 

Total. 

1870 

11.350           13.900 

1871 

20  OOOi     .  . 

1872 

22,000 

30  000  

1  1    171 

11   171 

1873 

39,000 

44,800 

ip'sQn            IQ'SQ^ 

1874 

58  000 

50.400 

29,342              99  349 

1875 

44*000          67200' 

9.9.  4  IX 

22,418 

1876 

44,000        112,000!  

1.262i        20,818 

22,080 

1877 

70,000        196,000  

14,643          22,1801             86.823 

1878 

75,000        224,000!.. 

15,615 

21.422              37037 

18791         90,000[       280,000  

15.937 

28,563       .       44,500 

1880|       171,139        380,000|         60,781 

35,282 

33,693!             68,925 

1881 
1882 

220,000        420,000        109,033 
250,000        896.000        152,940 

48,107 
51,093 

39,483!             87,590 
49,590            100,683 

1883 

385,000     1,568,000        217.5H1 

102,750 

51,237            153,987 

1884 

420,000     2,240.000        244,009 

116.264 

53,078            169,342 

1885 

5-5,000}    2,492,000        SOI,  180        133,^08 

69,261            203,069 

1886 

650.000     1,800,000 

375,054        180,133 

73,312            253,445 

1887 

675,000     1,950.000        325,020!        176,374 

85.020            261.394 

1888 

1,000,000!    2.900,000        508,51  1|       317,289 

84,041 

401  ,330 

1889 

1,670,0001    3,572.983!    1,030,5  lOl       608,034 

98,595 

706,629 

1890 

1,897,815 

4.090,409 

1,072,942!       748,383 

98,528 

S16,911 

1891 

1,986,830 

4,759,781 

1,282,496:       717.687 

77,985 

795.672 

)89:) 

2,312,071 

5,529,312 

1,501,571  1       835.810 

79,456 

915,296 

18^3 

1,742,410 

5,136,935 

1,  168,  085  !       659,725 

67,1H3 

726,888 

1894 

1,493,086!    4,397,178        923,817        556,314 

3(5,078 

592,392 

1895 

2,199,390     5,693,775     1,444,339!       835,851 

18,816 

854,667 

1896 

2,041.793 

5.745,617 

1,689,703        892,383 

29,787 

922,170 

1897 

2.050.014     5.893.771      1.395.252        932.918 

14.P13            947.831 

Freight  tariff  for  pig  iron,  per  ton,-  in  carload  lots  of 
not  less  than  17i  tons  of  2,268  pounds  from  the  fol- 
lowing points  in  Alabama,  effective  February  24th, 
1898:  Anniston,  Attalla,  Bessemer,  Birmingham, 
Boyles,  Brierfieid,  Columbiana,  Ensley,  Gadsden, 
Ironaton,  Jenifer,  North  Birmingham,  Oxmoor,  Rock 


FURNACES,   ROLLING  MILLS,   ETC.  367 

Run,  Round  Mountain,  Shelby,  Talladega,  Tecumseh, 
Thomas,  Trussville,  Woodward  — 

1896.  To  1898. 

;  1  .30  Atlanta,  Ga  ..........................  $  1  .30 

Baltimore,  Md.,  all  rail  ................  3.76 

3.60  «  rail  and  water  .........  3.10 

Boston,  Mass.,  all  rail  ...............  '.  .  5.33 

4.10                        "         rail  and  water  ......  N...  3.60 

4.40     Buffalo,  N.  Y  ............  .........  -;.  ..  3.85 

^Chattanooga,  Tenn  ....................  0.75 

2.75     Cincinnati,  Ohio  ......................  2.25 

3.90     Cleveland,  Ohio  ...........  -  ............  3.30 

3.85  Chicago,  111  ...........................  3.10 

Columbus,  Ohio  .......................  2.90 

Denver,  Col  ..........................  9.19 

3.95  Detroit,  Mich  ...........  >  .............  3.40 

Galveston,  Texas  .  .  .  ...................  ,  5.97 

5.10  Hamilton,  Canada  ...................  .  4.30 

Kansas  City,  Mo  .....  .  ..............  '.  .  4.40 

2.50  Louisville,  Ky  ........................  2.00 

Minneapolis,  Minn  ....................  4.95 

2.50  Mobile  Ala.,  export  ....................  1.00 

Montreal,  Canada  .....................  5.60 

*Nashville,  Term  .......................  1.00 

2.50  New  Orleans,  La.,  export  ..............  1.60 

Newport  News,  Va  ....................  2.£6 


«  "K     ^       v     i     XT   v  -    ............  5.13 

o./5     New  York,  N.  Y.,          .,        ,  0  oc, 

'   (  rail  and  water  ......  3.25 

Norfolk,  Va  ......  .................  ....  2.35 

Omaha,  Neb  .........................  4.50 

4.75     Philadelphia,  Pa.,  all  rail  ..............  4  .02 

"     rail  and  water  .......  .  3.25 

*From  Birmingham. 

Pensacola,  Fla.,  export  ..............  ...  1.00 


368  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

4.40     Pittsburg,  Pa   3.70 

14.47     Portland,  Oregon 12.84 

San  Francisco,  Gal 12.84 

2.90     Savannah,  Ga 2.90 

3.25     St.  Louis,  Mo 2.75 

5,10     Toronto,  Canada 4.30 

.Youngstown,  Ohio 3.30 

From  the  Sheffield  District  the  all-rail  differential  is 
40  cents  under  the  Birmingham  rate. 

The  distances  from  Birmingham  to  these  points  is 
about  as  follows  : 

From  Birmingham  to  Distance  in  Miles. 

Atlanta 167 

Baltimore    .  - . 1,050 

Boston 1,450 

Buffalo     950 

Chattanooga 143 

Cincinnati 504 

Cleveland 767 

Chicago 650 

Columbus 630 

Denver 1,400 

Detroit 766 

Galveston 800 

Hamilton 975 

Kansas  City 850 

Louisville 394 

Minneapolis  ......  1,050 

Mobile 276 

Montreal 1,600 

Nashville 209 

New  Orleans 417 

Newport  News ....  800 

New  York 1,225 


FURNACES,  ROLLING  MILLS,  E^C.  369 

Norfolk 775 

Omaha *  1,000 

Pensacola 260 

Philadelphia 1,150 

Pittsburg 817 

Portland 3,675 

San  Francisco 3,000 

Savannah 448 

St.  Louis 528 

Toronto 996 

Youngstown ......  875 

The  pig  iron  produced  in  Alabama  goes  into  almost 
every  State  of  the  Union,  and  into  many  foreign  coun- 
tries. The  transportation  rates,  therefore,  are  most  im- 
portant to  the  stability  of  the  industry.  Taking  the 
figures  given  in  the  preceding  statements  as  to  the  rates 
and  the  distances,  it  will  be  found  that  the  highest  rate 
per  ton-mile  from  the  Birmingham  district  is  to  Atlanta, 
a  distance  of  167  miles,  to  which  point  the  rate  is  $1.30, 
or  7.78  mills  per  ton-mile.  The  lowest  rate  is  to  Louis- 
ville, a  distance  of  394  miles,  to  which  point  the  rate  is 
$2.00,  or  1.97  mills  per  ton-mile. 

As  it  might  be  of  some  interest  to  know  what  the 
rates  per  ton-mile  are  for  pig  iron,  the  following  table 
has  been  constructed,  based  on  the  above  rates  and  dis- 
tances, and  all  rail  freights. 

TABLE  LIII. 

Giving  the  freight  rates  per  ton-mile  on  pig  iron  from 
the  Birmingham  district  to  points  as  below,  in  mills. 

Atlanta 7.78 

Baltimore 3.58 

Boston 3.68 

Buffalo 4,05 

34 


370  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  OF  ALABAMA. 

Chattanooga 5 .24 

Cincinnati 2.24 

Cleveland 4.30 

Columbus 4.60 

Denver ... 6.56 

Detroit 4.44 

Galveston  . . 7.46 

Hamilton 4.51 

Kansas  City .  .  5.18 

Louisville 1.97 

Minneapolis.  .    4.71 

Mobile 3.62 

Montreal 3.50 

Nashville 4.78 

New  Orleans 3.83 

Newport  News 2.94 

New  York 4.19 

Norfolk 3.03 

Omaha 4.50 

Pensacola 3.85 

Philadelphia 3.50 

Pittsburg 4.53 

Portland 3.49 

San  Francisco 4.28 

Savannah 6.47 

St.  Louis 5.21 

Toronto 4.32 

Youngstown 3.77 

Freight  tariff  for  coal  and  coke  in  effect  in  the  Spring 
of  1898,  from  Birmingham  to 

Atlanta,  Ga $1 .05 

Augusta,  Ga 1 .80 

Charleston,  S.  C 2.05 

Columbia,  S.  C 2.20 


FURNACES,  ROLLING  MILLS,   ETC.  371 

Columbus,  Miss 1.05 

Dallas,  Texas 4.75  steam  coal,  $4.95  coke. 

El  Paso,  Texas 6.44 

Greenville,  Miss 1 .15 

Houston,  Texas 2.90  coal,  $3.55  coke. 

Macon,  Ga 1.50 

Meridian,  Miss 1.15 

Mobile,  Ala 1.50 

Montgomery,  Ala 1.10 

New  Orleans,  La 1.40  steam  coal,  $1.60  coke, 

Pensacola,  Fla 

Savannah,  Ga 1.80 

Selma, 1.00 

Shreveport,  La 2.15 

Vicksburg,  Miss 1.55 

Bunker  rate  to  Mobile $1.10 

"     "    New   Orleans.  .    1.40 

"     "   Pensacola 1.10 

The  same  rates  hold  for  export. 

These  rates  are  per  ton   for  carload  of  not  less  than 
23  tons  of  2,000  pounds. 


INDEX. 

Page. 

Alabama  Coal  in  By-product   Ovens 115 

Axle  Works 364 

Basic  Iron,  Burdens 320-345 

Basic  Iron,  Composition  of 315 

Basic  Iron,  Cost  of : 314 

Basic  Iron,  Firms  using ; 305 

Basic  Iron,  Manufacture  of 305-345 

Basic  Iron,  Production  of 346 

Basic  Iron,  Specifications  for 311-314 

Basic  Steel 290  et  seq. 

Basic  Steel,  Chemical  and  Physical  Tests.  .292,  297-302 

Basic  Steel,  First  Production  of 290 

Basic  Steel,  Materials  for 304 

Basic  Steel,  Report  of  Committee  on,  in  1890 293 

Bessemer  Ore,  not  found 17 

Bessemer  Rolling  Mill : 291 

Bessemer  Steel,  Statistics  of 309 

Big  Stone  Gap  Coke,  Analysis  of 84 

Birkinbine,  John,  Statistics  of  Iron  Ore 30 

Birmingham  Rolling  Mill  Company,  Basic  Steel.  .  .  .296 

Black  Creek  Coal,  Calories  of 242 

Black  Creek  Coke,  Analysis  of 80 

Blair,  A.  A.,  Analysis  of  Iron  Ore 44 

Blast  Furnace   Burdens 67,  141-165 

Blast  Furnace,  First  in  Alabama 8 

Blast  Furnace,  List  of 345  et  seq. 

Blauvelt,  W.  H.,  Semet-Solvay   Ovens 123-139 

Blocton  Coal,  Calories  of 242 

Blocton  Coke,  Analysis  of 84 

Blue  Billy  Iron  Ore 61 

Blue  Creek  Coal,  Calories  of 244 


374 

Page. 

Blue  Creek  Coke,  Analysis 78-81 

Brannon,  W.  H.,  Grading  Pig  Iron 169-173 

Bridge  Works 363-365 

Brookside  Coke,  Analysis  of , .85 

Cahaba  Coal,  Calories  of 242 

Campbell,  H.  H.,  on  Basic  Steel 298 

Campbell  Coal.  Washer 218 

Carnpredon's  Method  of  Testing  Coking  Coals 131 

Carbon,  deposited  in  Coking 101-104,  130 

Carbonic  Acid,  Removal  of,  from  Limy  Ore 2^3-285 

Carbuilding  Works 364 

Charcoal  Furnace  Practice 164 

Coal,  Analysis  of 244-246 

Coal,  Area 201 

Coal,  Beaver  Creek,  Pa.,  Analysis  of 246 

Coal,  Blue  Creek,  Ala.,  Analysis  of .244 

Coal,  Carnegia,  Pa.,  Analysis  of 246 

Coal,  Clinton,  Pa.,  Analysis  of 246 

Coal,  Henry  Ellen,  Ala.,  Analysis  of 244 

Coal,  Hoytdale,  Pa.,  Analysis  of 246 

Coal,  Mary  Lee,  Ala.,  Analysis   of 244 

Coal,  Pocahontas,  Va.,  Analysis  of 246 

Coal,  Pratt,  Ala.,  Analysis  of 244 

Coal,  Pratt,  Ala.,  in  By-product  ovens 115-120 

Coal,  Pratt,  Ala.,  in  Bee-hive  ovens. 96,  100-110 

Coal,  Thacker,  Pa.,  Analysis  of 246 

Coal,  West  Va.,  Analysis  of 246 

Coal,  Colorific  Power  of 240-246 

Coal,  Changes  of,  in  Coking 109 

Coal,  Coking,  Campredon's  Method  of  Testing 131 

Coal,  Freight  Tariff  on .-.  371 

Coal,  Mines,  Statistics  of 202-21?' 

Goal,  Prices  of .  .  .  .  , .  .  .203 


375' 

Page. 

Coal,  Production  of 202,  366 

Coal,  Ultimate.  Analysis  of 100,  109,  244 

Coal,  Used  in  Coking 221 

Coal,  Washing  Plants 218 

Coal  Washing,  Results  of 223-234 

Coke,  Analysis  of 78-88 

Coke,  Ash,  Analysisof 78,  87-88 

Coke,  Bee-hive 93-111 

Coke,  By-product 115-139 

Coke,  By-product,  Structure  of .  .  . 128 

Coke,  By-product,  Use  of  in  Blast  Furnace 129 

Coke,  Changes  of  Coal  in  Making 109 

Coke, Classification  of 76 

Coke,  Connellsville,  Analysis  of 83 

Coke  Consumption 89,  141-163 

Coke  Furnaces 139,  345 

Coke  Furnace   Practice 141-163 

Coke  from  Lump  Coal,  Analysis  of 87 

Coke  from  Run-of-Mines  Coal,  Analysis   of 86 

Coke  from  Washed  Slack,  Analysis  of 87 

Coke  Oven  Gas,  Analysis  of 107,  1 17-119,  136 

Coke  Ovens,  Statistics  of 92 

Coke,  Otto-Hoffman 1 15-120 

Coke,  Physical  Structure  of 78-^8,  101-107 

Coke,  Production  of 92,  366 

Coke,  Semet-Solvay .  , 123-139 

Coke  Yield  of  Pratt,  in  Bee-hive  Oven 96-100  ,  110 

Coke  Yield  of  Pratt,  in  By-product  Oven 117-119 

Concentration  of  Low-grade  Ores 247,  et  seq. 

Counellsville  Coke,  Analysis  of 83 

Counellsville  Coke  compared  with  By-product  )    10Q   lQn 

Coke f    IZ*' 

Crellin  &  Nails 391 

Davis-Colbv  Ore  Kiln..  .  .283 


'376 

Page. 

DeBardeleben,  H.   F 11 

Dewejr,  F.  P.  on  Coke 106 

D'Invilliers,  E.  V.  Comparison  of  some  Southern  )         ^ 

Coke  and  Iron  Ores \ 

Dolcito  Dolomite  Quarry 69 

Dolomite ,  Analysis  of 64 

Dolomite,  First  Use  of 69 

Dolomite,  North  Birmingham  Quarry 70 

Dolomite,  Use  of,  as  Flux 70-75 

East  No.  2  Ore  Mine 37 

Ebelmen,  on  Coke  Oven  Gas 107 

Fleming,  H.  S.,    General  Description    of    the    Ores  \    ^ 

Used  in  the  Chattanooga  District i 

Forges  and  Bloomaries .  362 

Fort  Payne,  Basic  Steel  at , 296 

Fossil  Red  Ore  Mines 43 

Freight  Tariff 367-36^ 

Fulton,  John,  On  Coke ,  .  .  .    .  :3 

Furnace  Burdens 67,  143-165,  320-345 

Furnaces,  Charcoal 355-357 

Furnaces,  Charcoal,  When  Built. . 357 

Furnaces,  Coke 347-355 

Furnaces,  Coke,  When  Built 353-354 

Furnaces,  Directory  of 347-35S 

Gas  Carbon ,  Analysis  of 80 

"Gouge,"  The . 37 

Gogin,  Mr.. 293 

Grace's  Gap 3? 

Hancock,  David,  Analysis  and  Tests  of  Basic  Steel.  .301 

Hard  Red  Ore,  Analysis  of 52 

Hassinger,  W.  H.,  Member  of  Committee  to  Re-  )    293 

port  on  Basic   Steel } 

Hawkins'  Process  of  Steel  Making 2^6 

Head,  Jeremiah,  On  Birmingham  District 235-240 


377 

Page. 

Helena  Coal,  Calories  of 242 

Hematite  Ores 35-54 

Henderson  Basic  Open  Hearth  Furnace. 313 

Henderson  Steel  and  Manufacturing  Co 2v»0-293 

Henry  Ellen  Coal,  Analysis  of 242,  244 

Hillhouse,  Jas.  D.,  Statistics  of  Coal  and   Coke ^2 

Hillman,  T,T ..11 

Hoffman  Concentrator    :  .  .  .  .  256 

Iron  Ore,  Analysis  of  Brown 57 

Iron  Ore,   Analysis  of  Hard  Red  (Limy) 52 

Iron  Ore ,  Analysis  of  Soft  Red 44 

Iron  Ore,  Analysis  of  Blue  Billy. 61 

Iron  Ore,  Analysis  of  Mill  Cinder 61 

Iron  Ore,  for  Basic  Iron 315,  317,  319 

Iron  Ore,  Basis  of  Purchase 21-24,  58 

Iron  Ore,  Black-band 16 

Iron  Ore,  B.rown,  (Limonite) 54,  57 

Iron  Ore,  Classification  of 35 

Iron  Ore,  Concentration  of  Brown 285-289 

Iron  Ore,  Concentration  of  Hard  Red  (Limy)  .  .278  et  seq 

Iron  Ore,  Concentration 24 ,  -289 

Iron  Ore,  Concentration  by  Wetherill  Process. 265  et  seq 

Iron  Ore,  Geology  of 35 

Iron  Ore,  Hard  Red,  (Limy)  Nature  of 50 

Iron  Ore,  High  Phosphorus 312 

Iron  Ore,  Phosphorus  in ..  .< .  . 17-18 

Iron  Ore,  Prices  of 143 

Iron  Ore,  Production  of 19,  20,  30,  366 

Iron  Ore,  Relation  Between  Hard  and  Soft 281 

Iron  Ore,  Section  of  Deposit  of 38,  42,  281 

Iron  Ore,  Screening  of  Brown 60 

Iron  Ore,  Valuation  of 33-34 

Iron  Ore,  Washing  of  Brown .... 


378 

Page. 

Iron  Trade  Review,  Statistics  from 32 

Jefferson  Coke,  Analysis  of 80 

Jefferson  Mining  &  Quarrying  Co.  (Dolomite) 69 

Jefferson  Steel  Co 313 

Johnston,  A.  B.  Member  of  Committee  to  report  ) 

on  Basic  Steel ] 

Johnston,  H.  R.  Member  of  Committee  to  report  ) 

on  Basic  Steel } 

Landreth,  0.  H.  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels 242 

Leeds,  P  ,  Member   of  Committee   to  Report   on  ) 

Basic  Steel \ 

Lentscher,  G.  L.  Member  of  Committee  to  report 

on  Basic  Steel 

Limestone,  Analysis  of * 62 

Limonite  Ores 54-60 

Littlehales.  Thos.  G 117 

Luthy,  Dr.,  Analysis  of  Pratt  Washed  Slack  Coal    .  .116 
McCreath,  A.  S.,  Comparison  of   some    Southern  )        -. 

Cokes  and  Iron  Ores \ 

Magnetization  of  Ores 247  et  seq 

Manganese   Ore 305 

Mary  Lee  Coal,  Calories  of 24*4 

Mason,   Dr.   Frank,   Analysis   of   Pratt    Washed 

Slack  Coal 

Meissner,  C.  A.,  First  to  Use  Dolomite 69 

Mill  Cinder 61 

Morris,  Geo.  L 11 

Netze,  H.  B.  C.,  on  Concentrating  Ore 266 

North  Birmingham  Dolomite  Quarry 70 

Open  Hearth  Steel,  Statistics  of 309 

Parker,  E.  W.  Statistics  of  Coal   and  Coke 202-217 

Parsons,  W.  P 117 

Payne  Concentrator 256 

Pechm?  B.  6.,  Articles  on  Alabama . .  . •<  . . .  .1 


379 

Page. 

Pechin,  E.  C.  Cost  of  Making  Iron  in  Alabama 187 

Pig  Iron 166-199 

Pig  Iron,  Basic,  Composition  of 315 

Pig  Iron,  Bessemer 167 

Pig  Iron,  Charcoal,  Production  of ' 35s 

Pig  Iron,  Coke,  Production   of 355 

Pig  Iron,  Cost  of  Making . 187-199 

Pig  Iron,  Exports  of 184 

Pig  Iron.  First  Used  in  Making  Basic  Steel 294 

Pig  Iron,  Freight  Tariff 366-370 

Pig  Iron,  Grades  of 168 

Pig  Iron,  Grading,  Agreement  of  1888 176 

Pig  Iron,  Grading,  New  System  Suggested 181 

Pig  Iron,    Prices  of 173 

Pig  Iron,  Production  of 21,  366 

Pig  Iron,  Variation  in  Composition  of 177 

Pipe  Works 363 

Pittsburg  Gas  &  Coke  Co 115 

Pocahontas  Coke,  Analysis  of r4 

Poole,  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels 245 

Porter,  Jno.  B.  Iron  Ores  and  Coals   of    Georgia,  )         ..' 

Alabama  and  Tennessee ) 

Pottstoun  Iron  Co,,  Thomas  Steel 308 

Pratt  Coal,  Analysis  and  Calories - 242-244 

Pratt  Coke,  Analysis 78-81 

Producer  Gas  Analysis 253 

Ramsay,  Erskine,  Pratt  Mines  of  the  Tenn.  C.    I. 

&  Ry.  Co 

Robertson,  Kenneth,  Analysis  of  Pig  Iron 74 

Robertson,  Kenneth,  Grades  of  Pig  Iron 175 

Robinson-Ramsay  Coal  Washer. 218,  223,  226 

Rolling  Mills 359-362 

St.  Bernard  Coke,  Analysis  of 85 

Schniewind,  F..  115-117 


380 

Page. 

Sleep,  W.  J 183 

Sloss,  J.  W -...11 

Sloss  Iron  and  Steel  Company,  Dolomite.  ..-..' 70 

Sloss  Iron  and  Steel  Company,  Coal  tests  for.  .  . .  115-120 

Smith,  Dr.  Eugene  A.,  On  Coal  Area 201 

Soft  Red  Ore,  Analysis  of 44 

Soft  Eed  Ore,  Section  of  Seam 38,  42,  281 

Speakman,  Wm 117 

Standard  Coke,  Analysis  of 80 

Steel  Works 359-361 

Stein  Coal  Washer 218-232 

Stonega  Coke,  Analysis  of . 85 

Stoves,  Hot  Blast 358 

Swank,  Jas.  M.,  Statistics  from 21 

Thomas  Iron,  Manufacture  of 308 

Troy  Steel  &  Iron  Co .308 

Uehling,  E.  A.  Use  of  Dolomite .70 

United  States  Geological    Survey,  )  OA  01    Qn   QQ    CM   QO 
Statistics, ^U,  21,  dU,  dd,  d4,  U 

Warrior  Coal,  Calories  of 242 

Washing  Brown  Ore 55 

Washing  Coal 218  et  seq 

Weeks,  Jos.  D.,  Death  of. 91 

Wetherill  Concentrator 247  et  seq 

Wilkens,  H.  A.  J.,  Concentrating  Ore .  .266 

Wilson  H.  F.  Secretary  Henderson  Steel  &  Mfg.  Co. 290 
Worthington,  J.  W.  &  Co 69 


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